Qur’an 33:57 is an interesting verse about how Muhammad used his prophetic authority.
In our ministry, we rarely open the Qur’an. In our context, most Muslims do not know the Qur’an. Therefore, there is little reason to open the Qur’an and discuss their book with them. As a result, I have not often taught nor written about the Qur’an.
However, in recent months, we have realized a need to help new followers of Jesus from Muslim-background by comparing their new faith with their previous religion. The reason is that some Muslim-background believers (MBBs) get stuck between following Jesus and Islam. A division of loyalty exists in their hearts and minds between Muhammad and Jesus. Therefore, it has been helpful to help some of these MBBs to compare the character of Muhammad and Jesus. Usually, such a comparison helps break their allegiance to Muhammad and strengthens their commitment to Jesus.
I have been thinking about better ways to help MBBs make these comparisons in recent months. As I studied, I came across Surah 33 of the Qur’an and was surprised at what I found. I had read Surah 33 many times before but had never really stopped to think through the historical context and implications of this Surah.
So, here are six reflections on Surah 33 from the perspective of a follower of Jesus.
Reflection #1. The historical context of Surah 33 is shocking. The historical purpose of this Surah was to encourage Muhammad’s adopted son, Zayd ibn Haritha, to divorce his wife, Zaynab bint Jahsh, so that Muhammad could marry her.
Let me back up and give a bit more of the story. Zaynab bint Jahsh (590-641 AD) was Muhammad’s first cousin. She was a widow in her early 30’s, so Muhammad encouraged her to marry his adopted son, Zayd ibn Haritha (581-629 AD). Zayd had been a slave of Muhammad’s first wife but was later freed and adopted by Muhammad. Since Zaynab came from a highly respected family, she was initially reluctant to marry Zayd. Zayd and Zaynab married in 625 AD and did not have a pleasant marriage by most accounts.
Muhammad related in Surah 33 of the Qur’an that he encouraged Zayd, “Retain you (in wedlock) your wife, and fear Allah” (Qur’an 33:37a). Muhammad encouraged Zayd to be faithful in his marriage to Zaynab.
However, the same verse goes on to say, “But you [Muhammad] did hide in your heart that which Allah was about to make manifest: you did fear the people, but it is more fitting that you should fear Allah. Then when Zayd had dissolved (his marriage) with her, (with the necessary formality), We joined her [Zaynab] in marriage to you [Muhammad]: In order that (in future) there may be no difficulty to the Believers in (the matter of) marriage with the wives of their adopted sons, when the latter have dissolved with the necessary (formality) (their marriage) with them. And Allah’s command must be fulfilled” (Qur’an 33:27b).
The Qur’an reports that it was Muhammad’s duty to marry his cousin, Zaynab, in light of this divorce. They divorced in December 626 AD, according to Islamic tradition. Muhammad married Zaynab in 627 AD and she was with him until he died in 632 AD. In other words, the primary historical context of Surah 33 was to give Muhammad permission to marry a woman when most of society disagreed about the legality of such a marriage. Qur’an 33:37 reports that Allah gave this command through Muhammad “In order that (in future) there may be no difficulty to the Believers.” Muhammad knew that Muslims would have questions in their hearts about whether it was lawful for their religious leader to encourage a divorce and then immediately marry the divorced woman.
Two facts made this remarriage more difficult for the average Muslim in Muhammad’s time. First, it was considered against Arab culture for a man to marry the divorced wife of his adopted son. Only because of this command in the Qur’an did such remarriages become legal. Second, when Muhammad married Zaynab, she became his fifth wife. However, the Qur’an had elsewhere stated that a man could have a maximum of four wives. Here is a listing of Muhammad’s wives up to this point:
Khadijah, married 595-619 AD
Sawdah, married 619-632 AD
Aisha, married 623-632 AD
Hafsah, married 625-632 AD
Umm al-Masakin, married 625-626 AD
Umm Salamah, married 625-632 AD
Zaynab, married 627-632 AD
Muhammad briefly had five wives after he married Hafsah, Umm al-Masakin, and Umm Salamah in 625 AD, but the death of Umm al-Masakin in 626 AD brought his total number of wives back down to four. So with his marriage to Zaynab, Muhammad again surpassed the number of legal wives in Islam.
The fact that the Qur’an contains a Surah whose primary purpose is to encourage the Prophet of Islam to pursue another wife in this way is shocking. When I read this Surah, it appears that Muhammad used his leadership influence to pursue his desires. Unfortunately, many men throughout history have used positions of power to abuse those under their leadership. To an outsider, it appears as if that is what Muhammad was doing in this Surah.
Consider this from another perspective. Muhammad had a monopoly on hearing the voice of God in early Islam. Muhammad’s followers believed that whatever Muhammad said was the Word of God. In that context, it would be easy for a man to abuse such authority.
A biblical equivalent would be King David’s abuse of power in his adultery with Bathsheba and murder of her husband Uriah (2 Samuel 11). In response to David’s abuse of power, God sent the prophet Nathan to confront David and proclaim a curse upon him because of his sin (2 Samuel 12). King David repented from his sins and even wrote Psalm 51 as a permanent record of his repentance. However, in Islam, no one could come and rebuke Muhammad for his sins. My point is that God did not permit King David to remain in his sins. God’s concern for the leadership of his people was too great.
Reflection #2. It is shocking that the Qur’an gave Muhammad explicit permission for more than four wives. This Surah goes on to say, “O Prophet [Muhammad]! We have made lawful to you your wives to whom you have paid their dowers; and those whom your right hand possesses out of the captives of war who Allah has assigned to you; and daughters of your paternal uncles and aunts, and daughters of your maternal uncles and aunts, who migrated (from Mecca) with you; and any believing woman who dedicates herself to the Prophet [Muhammad] if the Prophet [Muhammad] wishes to wed her – this only for you [Muhammad], and not for the Believers (at large); We [Allah] know that We have appointed for them as to their wives and those whom their right hands possess – in order that there should be no difficulty for you. And Allah is Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful” (Qur’an 33:50).
The verse from the Qur’an above is quite a long sentence. However, the main point is that the Qur’an permitted Muhammad to take as many wives as he wanted. However, the Qur’an is clear that this privilege was only for Muhammad “and not for the Believers (at large).”
There is no biblical equivalent to this command in the Qur’an. We never see God give a single order in the Bible that loosens moral requirements for prophets or spiritual leaders. Instead, God’s demands for spiritual leaders are much higher in the Bible.
For example, 1 Timothy 3:1-7 provides the qualifications for church leaders. One of those requirements is that church leaders must be “the husband of one wife” (1 Timothy 3:2). It is surprising for those who know and love the Bible to see the Qur’an’s advocacy of polygamy. It is even more surprising when we see the Qur’an granting unlimited wives to the founder of Islam.
In stark contrast to Muhammad is Jesus. Jesus never married. He lived a chaste and pure life. He became a model for us to give up our rights and desires. Philippians 2:5-8 puts this beautifully,
“Adopt the same attitude as that of Christ Jesus,
who, existing in the form of God,
did not consider equality with God
as something to be exploited.
Instead he emptied himself
by assuming the form of a servant,
taking on the likeness of humanity.
And when he had come as a man,
he humbled himself by becoming obedient
to the point of death —
even to death on a cross.”
Reflection #3. It is shocking that the Qur’an permitted Muhammad to maintain sexual slaves (concubines). The Qur’an contains the phrase “those whom your right hand possesses” many times. In Qur’an 33:50, This phrase is explicitly about slaves. We read, “those whom your right hand possesses out of the captives of war whom Allah has assigned to you” (Qur’an 33:50). It is unclear how many sexual slaves (concubines) Muhammad had, but it is clear here that the Qur’an permitted him to have those slaves. In the context of Qur’an 33:50, it is clear that the Qur’an permitted Muhammad to have sexual relations with his sex slaves (concubines).
Again, the New Testament picture of sex being only between a man and his one wife is in sharp contrast here. The idea of Jesus enslaving people is ridiculous. As a celibate man, Jesus never took a wife, much less a sexual slave!
Here Muslims are quick to point out concubines in the Old Testament, which we must speak about to be intellectually honest. Concubines (Heb. phileges) are mentioned thirty-seven times in the Old Testament. The Old Testament says that Abraham (Genesis 25:6), David (2 Samuel 5:13; 15:16, etc.), and Solomon (1 Kings 11:3) had concubines. How should we feel about these men having concubines?
First, the Old Testament never explicitly permits the practice of having concubines. While men had concubines in the Old Testament, the Scriptures did not sanction them in the Law of Moses or anywhere else. In contrast, Qur’an 33:50 sanctioned the practice in early Islam.
Second, we must realize that New Testament forbids sex outside of marriage. The New Testament defines marriage as being between one man and one wife. Therefore, while men had concubines in the Old Testament, the New Testament eliminated this practice explicitly.
Third, even the Old Testament shows the foolishness of rampant polygamy and having concubines. Solomon was known as the wisest man who ever lived. However, his many wives corrupted his spiritual life and caused the curse of God to come on him. “When Solomon was old, his wives turned his heart away to follow other gods” (1 Kings 11:4a). Solomon’s unfaithfulness caused God to split the kingdom of Israel after his death leading to many long-term consequences for the people of God (1 Kings 11:11-12:33). My point is that the Bible paints Solomon’s many wives and concubines in a negative light because of the corrupting influence on Solomon’s life.
My stomach turns at the thought of sexual slavery. The fact that Abraham, David, and Solomon had sex slaves is disorienting to me. Since the New Testament makes no room for this practice, we usually do not think deeply about it in Christian ethics. Concubines are forbidden for followers of Jesus. The idea that not only Muhammad participated in this practice but that he prophesied that God gave him explicit permission to do so is heart-wrenching.
Reflection #4. It is shocking that the Qur’an permitted Muhammad to show favoritism among his wives.
In Islam, the rules on polygamy are complex. In brief, Islam allows a man to have up to four wives if:
the man has enough financial resources to provide for each of his families,
the man has the physical capability to satisfy the sexual needs of each of his wives, and
the man shows complete justice and equality among each family in every way and without favoritism.
As the founder of Islam, Muhammad was a rich man and able to fulfill the financial responsibility of many families (in this perspective, a family was a wife with her children). Muhammad is well known in the Hadith for his sexual stamina and thus was able to satisfy the sexual needs of many wives, according to the Islamic perspective. However, Muhammad struggled not to show favoritism among his wives, especially sexually. Surah 33 permitted Muhammad to have sex with whichever of his wives or concubines whenever he desired. In other words, the Qur’an permitted Muhammad to show favoritism among his wives based on his desires.
“You [Muhammad] may defer (the turn of) any of them [your wives) that you please, and you may receive any you please: and there is no blame on you if you invite one whose (turn) you have set aside” (Qur’an 33:51).
According to the Hadith, Aisha, one of Muhammad’s wives, responded negatively when she heard this prophetic statement from Muhammad. The Hadith says,
“Narrated Aisha: I used to look down upon those ladies who had given themselves to Allah’s Messenger and I used to say, ‘Can a lady give herself (to a man)?’ But when Allah revealed: ‘You (O Muhammad) can postpone (the turn of) who you will of them (your wives), and you may receive any of them you will; and there is no blame on you if you invite one whose turn you have set aside temporarily.’ (33.51) I said (to the Prophet), ‘I feel that your Lord hastens in fulfilling your wishes and desires.'” (Sahih al-Bukhari 4788)
One of Muhammad’s wives responded to Muhammad’s prophecy by saying, “I feel that your Lord hastens in fulfilling your wishes and desires.” Aisha was not naive (although she was only about 14 when Muhammad made this prophecy). She saw that Muhammad conveniently made prophecies that lined up with his wishes and desires. As the number of Muhammad’s wives and concubines grew, his sexual desires toward certain wives were stronger than others. Another Hadith says that one of Muhammad’s wives had already given up her sexual turn with Muhammad to Aisha. Some have surmised that Sawdah had given up her turn to avoid divorce since Muhammad no longer sexually desired her.
“Narrated by Aisha: Whenever Allah’s Apostle wanted to go on a journey, he would draw lots as to which of his wives would accompany him. He would take her whose name came out. He used to fix for each of them a day and a night. But Sawdah bint Zam’a give up her (turn) day and night to Aisha, the wife of the Prophet, in order to see the pleasure of Allah’s Apostle (by that action)” (Sahih al-Bukhari 2594).
No doubt Aisha felt threatened by Muhammad taking on another beautiful wife. Muhammad cleared the way for him to pursue whichever wife pleased when he wanted sexually. Aisha was worried that Muhammad would prefer his new wife, Zaynab, over her. Therefore, she said, “I feel that your Lord hastens in fulfilling your wishes and desires.”
As a follower of Jesus, Muhammad’s marital relations and sexual practices are strange. A few more Hadith make this even stranger,
“Narrated Anas bin Malik: The Prophet used to visit all his wives in one night and he had nine wives at that time” (Sahih al-Bukhari 284).
“Narrated Qatada: Anas bin Malik said, ‘The Prophet used to visit all his wives in a round, during the day and night and they were eleven in number.’ I asked Anas, ‘Had the Prophet the strength for it?’ Anas replied, ‘We used to say that the Prophet was given the strength of thirty (men)'” (Sahih al-Bukhari 268).
Some Muslim men feel it is suitable for their Prophet to have had such a strong sex drive. They believe that it is an indication of his strength. However, I hope that most find these descriptions of a highly sexual Prophet strange.
Last, any prophet who prophecies to their advantage is prophesying falsely. Referring to false prophets, Peter wrote, “They will exploit you with their greed with made-up stories. Their condemnation, pronounced long, ago, is not idle, and their destruction does not sleep” (2 Peter 2:3). Peter warned his disciples that false prophets would attempt to exploit them with made-up stories. One mark of a false prophet is a person who seeks to use their prophetic gifting to exploit others. Peter referred to financial exploitation. Surah 33 is an example of sexual exploitation. A plain reading of this Surah should make thinking people reconsider whether Muhammad was a prophet.
Reflection #5. Although Surah 33 commanded Muhammad not to take any more wives, he married several more wives after this Surah. Therefore, Muhammad broke the command he gave himself in the Qur’an.
“It is not lawful for you [Muhammad] (to marry more) women after this, nor to change them for (other) wives, even through their beauty attract you, except any your right hand should possess (as handmaidens): and Allah does watch over all things” (Qur’an 33:52).
Surah 33 is clear, Muhammad was permitted to take a fifth wife, but he was not supposed to take any more after Zaynab. However, Muhammad’s list of wives continued to grow after this Surah. While there is some debate about his wives, here is one list.
Khadijah, married 595-619 AD
Sawdah, married 619-632 AD
Aisha, married 623-632 AD
Hafsah, married 625-632 AD
Umm al-Masakin, married 625-626 AD
Umm Salamah, married 625-632 AD
Zaynab, married 627-632 AD
Juwayriyah, married 628-632 AD
Umm Habibah, married 628-632 AD
Safiyyah, married 629-632 AD
Maymunah, married 629-632 AD
There is debate about whether some other women were wives or concubines. According to this list, Muhammad took at least four more wives after Zaynab. We know that he also took other concubines, but Surah 33:52 permitted Muhammad to continue taking more sex slaves even when he could not take more wives. Again, I am shocked to read statements like this in the Qur’an.
Muslim apologists try to reconcile this by saying that Allah revealed Surah 33:51, which permitted Muhammad to take all the wives he wanted, AFTER revealing Surah 33:52, which said that Muhammad could not take more wives. Therefore, Surah 33:52 was abrogated by Surah 33:51. The meaning is that Surah 33:52 was no longer binding since Surah 33:51 overwrote it. I find such arguments perplexing. Imagine two consecutive verses in the Bible that we tried to put into conflict with one another in this way. It is madness! However, Muslims must find a way to vindicate their Prophet who disobeyed his own prophecy.
Reflection #6. Muhammad used Allah’s voice to declare that anyone who annoys him would go to hell!
After discussing marriage and sexuality, I want to end with a lighter topic. It appears that Muhammad liked his privacy and did not like guests who stayed too long at his house. But instead of speaking to his guests directly, Muhammad had Allah make a prophetic revelation about it. The abuse of power demonstrated in these verses is appalling but also a bit amusing.
“O you who believe! Enter not the Prophet’s houses – until leave is given you – for a meal, (and then) nor (so early as) to wait for its preparation: but when you are invited, enter; and when you have taken your meal, disperse, without seeking familiar talk. Such (behavior) annoys the Prophet: he is shy to ask you to go, but Allah is not shy (to tell you) the truth” (Qur’an 33:53a).
Then a few verses later,
“Those why annoy Allah and His Messenger – Allah has cursed them in this world and in the Hereafter, and has prepared for them a humiliating Punishment” (Qur’an 33:57).
When Muhammad became popular and people wanted to be with him, he was annoyed and declared that they would go to hell if they didn’t stop bothering him. In contrast, Jesus loved and had compassion on the crowds.
“When [Jesus] saw the crowds, he felt compassion for them, because they were distressed and dejected, like sheep without a shepherd” (Matthew 9:36).
Then a bit later, Jesus said,
“Come to me, all of you who are weary and burdened, and I will give you rest. Take up my yoke and learn from me, because I am lowly and humble in heart, and you will find rest for your souls. For my yoke is easy and my burden is light” (Matthew 11:28-30).
It is unimaginable to think of Jesus rebuking the crowds and saying, “You are annoying me! Don’t you know that you will go to hell if you annoy me?”
Conclusion
In conclusion, when Muslims follow Jesus, they often feel discord between serving Muhammad or Jesus. They have one foot in each world. They have been taught to see Muhammad as the perfect man by whose example they should live. They are attracted to the person and greatness of Jesus, but the old remains inside of them.
Sometimes, we have to help some Muslims at this stage to look at the life of Muhammad and compare it with Jesus. Surah 33 of the Qur’an is simply one of many places where we see a significant difference between the life of Jesus and Muhammad. May the Lord bless you as you continue to make disciples of many Muslims! If you want to read more about making disciples of Muslims, start with this article next. https://nocousinsleft.com/2022/10/08/how-should-mbbs-relate-to-islam-and-culture/
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The purpose of this timeline is to provide information to students of the Bible about when certain events in the Bible occurred. Please note that I have designated this as “a chronology” rather than “the chronology.” Some uncertainty exists in extrapolating these dates. Moreover, this timeline is a work in progress and will be updated. When I update this timeline, I will update the date on the top of the blogpost.
One of the reasons that I made a new chronology is that I found most chronologies of the New Testament period lacking in providing evidence and reasoning for their dates. Therefore, I have included substantive footnotes on this post. These footnotes include my reasoning and evidence for the dates I have given.
I personally find it easier to look at this information in a PDF. So, here is a PDF you can download of this timeline.
67 Timothy succeeded Paul as the leader of the Gentile mission[62]
70 The destruction of Jerusalem
Bibliography
Bruce, F.F., “Chronological Questions in Acts of the Apostles,” The John Rylands University Library (1985): 273-295. This article is an investigation into eight historical markers in the book of Acts that significantly aid our understanding of the chronology of Acts.
Garland, David E., Luke. Zondervan Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2011.
Humphreys, Colin J., “The Star of Bethlehem a Comet in 5-BC and the Date of the Birth of Christ,” Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society 32.4 (1991), 389-407.
Humphreys, Colin J. and W. Graeme Waddington, “The Date of the Crucifixion,” JASA 37 (March 1985): 2-10.
Köstenberger, Andreas J., Commentary on 1-2 Timothy and Titus. Biblical Theology for Christian Proclamation. Nashville: B&H Publishing, 2017.
Köstenberger, Andreas J. “April 3, AD 33: Why We Believe We Can Know the Exact Date Jesus Died,” First Things (2014).
Schnabel, Eckhard J., Acts. Zondervan Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012. Pages 43-46 of this commentary provide a detailed chronology that was the starting point for the chronology in this document.
Schreiner, Thomas R., Galatians. Zondervan Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2010.
Wallace, Daniel B., Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics: An Exegetical Syntax of the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996.
[1] “A ruler under king Aretas guarded the city of Damascus in order to arrest” Paul (2 Cor 11:32). Paul escaped by being lowered from a basket. This event is also mentioned in Acts 9:25. According to Galatians 1:18, Paul had been in Christ for three years before his first visit to Jerusalem, which immediately followed his flight from Damascus. Since Aretas died in 40 AD, this means that the latest date for Paul’s conversion was three years before his death in 37 AD. See Bruce, 275-276.
[2] The exact date of Jesus’ birth is not known; however, the year of his birth can be approximated through three methods. (1) Looking at historical references in Matthew and Luke, (2) dating the star of Matthew 2, and (3) using the beginning date of His ministry. Matthew 2:1 states that Jesus was born “in the days of King Herod, who was still alive two years after the birth of Jesus. The two years is indicated by Matthew 2:16, where Herod killed all the boys around Bethlehem according to the time he received from the magi from the east. Since Herod died in 4 BC, it is likely that Jesus was born in 6 BC at the latest. John the Baptist’s conception also occurred during the time of Herod (Luke 1:5). Luke 2:1 provides another historical marker for Jesus’ birth, “In those days a decree went out from Caesar Augustus (r. 27 BC to 14 AD) that the whole empire should be registered. This registration was before Quirinius governed Syria.” For a detailed defense of this translation of Luke 2:2, see Garland, 117-119. Briefly Garland argues that prote is translated comparatively as “before” rather than adjectivally as “first.” The genitive clause hegemoneuontos tes Syrias Kureniou is a temporal clause following this first census. Quirinius is reported by Josephus as undertaking a large-scale census in 6-7 AD, which would have been the most memorable census of that period. By this interpretation, Luke 2:1-2 is reporting a smaller census that preceded that census. In contrast, Wallace argued that he could not fully resolve the tensions of translating this verse (Wallace, 304-305). In conclusion, not much is able to be determined from either Matthew or Luke regarding the year of Jesus’ birth. The only indication is that Jesus was born during the reign of Caesar Augustus who reigned from 27 BC to 14 AD). Regarding astrological signs, Humphreys argued that a comet in 5 BC could have been the star that the magi saw from the east (Humphreys, 389-407). However, that evidence is far from conclusive. If Humphrey’s hypothesis were correct, it would correspond to the 6 BC date of Jesus’ birth and the 4 BC arrival of the magi assumed in this chronology. It is possible by these arguments that Jesus was born earlier than 6 BC since both King Herod I and Caesar Augustus reigned for significant time periods before the birth of Jesus. The date of His birth is limited by Luke 3:23 that indicates that Jesus was “about thirty” when He began His ministry. This phrase can be understood that Jesus was in His 30s, meaning between 30-39 years of age. Thus, if He began His ministry at the age of in 30 AD, He would have been within the permissible range.
[3] Matthew 2:16 indicates that the magi came about two years after the birth of Jesus.
[4] A tetrarch was a governor over one of four divisions of a Roman province.
[5] This event occurred when Jesus was twelve years old (Luke 2:42). There is no indication in the New Testament of Jesus’ life between the ages of 12 and 36. Later apocryphal literature developed fantasies about His early life but all of these writings were much later than the New Testament and should not be regarded.
[6] Most of the dating of Jewish leaders is derived from the writings of Joesphus in correspondence from other historical sources. For the purposes of this timeline, I have taken the dates of the high priests from Schnabel’s timeline.
[7] A type of civil official under the leadership of Rome.
[8] There are fifty-seven references to Pontius Pilate in the New Testament.
[9] Luke 3:1-2 is full of historical details about when the word of God came to John the Baptist. “In the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar (approx. 26/27 AD), while Pontius Pilate was governor of Judea (26-36 AD), Herod was tetrarch of Galilee (4 BC-39 AD), his brother Philip tetrarch of the region of Iturea and Trachonitis, and Lysanias tetrarch of Abilene, during the high priesthood of Annas and Caiaphus (18-36 AD). Of these dates, the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar is the firmest date, however some ambiguity exists in this date as well. Tiberius became Caeasar on August 19, 14 AD, however he became co-princeps with Caesar Augustus in 12 AD according to Suetonius. Suetonius wrote, “Since the consuls caused a law to be passed soon after this that [Tiberius] should govern the provinces jointly with Augustus and hold the census with him, he set out for Illyricum on the conclusion of the lustral ceremonies; but he was at once recalled, and finding Augustus in his last illness but still alive, he spent an entire day with him in private” (Suetonius, The Life of the Twelve Caesars: he Life of Tiberius, 21.1). Therefore, it is possible that the fifteenth year of Tiberius’ reign was measured from either 12 AD or 14 AD. It is mostly likely that it is measured from 12 AD to harmonize these dates with the ministry of Paul. It is difficult to harmonize a Pauline chronology based on dates and information in Acts and Galatians if Jesus died in 33 AD, which would be the case if John the Baptist’s ministry was fifteen years past 14 AD. However, a 30 AD date is possible for Jesus’ death if measured from 12 AD, which creates greater harmony with the rest of the biblical data. If the 12 AD date is assumed for the beginning of the reign of Tiberius Caesar, then fifteen years later was 26 AD if part of 12 AD and part of 26 AD were included. The latest date for the fifteenth year of Tiberius Caesar would have been in 27 AD. Therefore, John the Baptist’s ministry begin in that timeframe.
[10] Jesus was baptized to begin his ministry, which began after the ministry of John the Baptist. There are three primary historical markers for the date of Jesus’ baptism: (1) the date of the crucifixion, (2) the dating of John the Baptist’s ministry, and (3) the length of Jesus’ ministry. Comparing the data on those three points (see the relevant footnotes), the most likely year for Jesus’ baptism was 27 AD.
[11] The ministry of Jesus was at least three years because three Passovers are mentioned in the Gospel of John (2:13, 23; John 6:4; John 11:55; 12:1). It is possible that Jesus’ ministry could have been four years. If John the Baptist’s ministry began in 26 AD, Jesus could have been baptized in 26 AD and crucified in 30 AD. There is nothing in Scripture that limits this possibility to only three years. One more indication of dating Jesus’ ministry is Luke 3:23 that states that Jesus was “about thirty years old” when he began His ministry. The Greek of “about thirty” denotes an approximation. Some have argued that “about thirty” means that Jesus was in His thirties, meaning between 30-39 years old when He began His ministry. If Jesus began His ministry in 27 AD and was born in 6 BC, He would have been 33 years old at that time, which is well within His thirties. It may have been important for Jesus to be at least thirty years old, since as Levites could not begin their ministry until they were thirty (Num. 4:34-35). As the high priest coming to administer a new covenant, it was important that Jesus fulfill all the Old Testament regulations, which included a minimum prescribed age for priesthood.
[12] The gospels show that Jesus was arrested the day before His trial and crucifixion while He was praying in the garden of Gethsemane (Luke 22:39-65). “When daylight came” the following day, Jesus faced the Sanhedrin (Luke 22:66). They then brought Him to Pilate that morning (Luke 23:1), which led to the sequence of events of His crucifixion.
[13] Jesus was most likely crucified either on April 7, 30 AD or April 3, 33 AD. All four gospels agree that Jesus was crucified while Pontius Pilate was the prefect of Judea between 26-36 AD (Matt 27:2; Mark 15:1; Luke 23:1; John 18:28-29). All four gospels agree that Jesus was crucified just before the Sabbath at the time of the Passover. Since the Passover was to begin on Saturday, then the crucifixion must have been on a Friday before a Saturday Passover. From 26-36 AD (the time of Pilate), only two Fridays were the day before Passover: April 7, 30 and April 3, 33 (See Humphreys and Waddington). Therefore, it is assumed that one of those two dates was the date of the crucifixion of Jesus. Modern evangelical biblical scholars are divided between these two dates. For example, Köstenberger holds to 33 AD (Köstenberger, “April 3, AD 33”), while Schnabel holds to 30 AD (Schnabel, Acts, 43). The difference between these two options is primarily based on whether John the Baptist began his ministry in 26 or 28 AD, which is based on the date of the beginning of the reign of Tiberius Caesar. The primary issue with the 33 AD crucifixion date is that it makes it difficult to harmonize a Pauline chronology, especially the clause “Then after 14 years I went up again to Jerusalem” in Galatians 2:1. Since 30 AD harmonizes with the available data and harmonizes with a Pauline chronology, it is the preferred date here.
[14] Acts 1:4 says that Jesus appeared the disciples over a period of forty days, speaking to them about the kingdom of God. It is possible that forty here is symbolic rather than exact. However, forty days as an exact date corresponds well to the timeframe between Passover and Pentecost.
[15] Pentecost, or the Festival of Weeks, was a prescribed Jewish feast that fell on May 28 in 30 AD (see Exodus 34:22). If Jesus died in 30 AD, then this is the date of the original Pentecost.
[16] In Acts 2-5, the only historical figure mentioned is Gamaliel, who died approximately 52 AD. Paul was a disciple of Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). Therefore, it is difficult to date these chapters. There is no clear indication within the text about how long these events took.
[17] The two primary markers for dating Saul’s conversion are the death of Herod Agrippa I in 44 AD (see Acts 12:20-23) and Paul’s description of his second visit to Jerusalem being fourteen years after his conversion (see Gal 2:1). In Galatians 2:1, Paul wrote, “Then after fourteen years I went up again to Jerusalem with Barnabas.” In his testimony in Galatians 1:11-2:10, Paul was demonstrating that he could not have learned his gospel from the other apostles but that he only received it by revelation directly from Jesus (see 2 Cor 12:1-1-5, which occurred in about 42 AD). Paul swore an oath that he was being truthful about his interactions with the other apostles (Gal 1:19-20). Since the famine relief visit of Acts 11:27-12:25 is Paul’s second Jerusalem visit in Acts, it best corresponds to the Galatians 2:1-10 visit. Paul’s famine relief visit happened around the time of the death of Herod Agrippa I in 44 AD. Therefore, fourteen years before his death would have been quite close to the crucifixion in either 30 or 31 AD, depending on how years are counted. Regarding the phrase “After fourteen years” in Galatians 2:1, it is possible to count this as fourteen years from Paul’s conversion or fourteen years from Paul’s first Jerusalem visit (See Schreiner, 119).
[18] In Galatians 1:17-18, Paul reported that he spent three years in Arabia and Damascus before going to Jerusalem. It is likely that he was involved with missionary activity during that period. He was so forceful in his proclamation that Paul (1) made disciples during this period (Acts 9:25) and the authorities in Damascus sought to kill him for it (Acts 9:23-25). In 2 Corinthians 11:32, Paul reported that it was a ruler under King Aretas (d. 40 AD) that sought to capture and kill Paul. Therefore, Paul’s flight from Damascus after three years of ministry must have occurred before 40 AD.
[19] After fleeing from Damascus, Paul reported he went to Jerusalem and spent fifteen days with Peter (Gal 1:18). This time period was insufficient for Paul to learn all his gospel and teaching from the former apostles as he argues in Galatians (Gal 1:11-2:10). He proclaimed the gospel so boldly in Jerusalem that the Jews there also tried to kill him, so he was sent to his home city of Tarsus (Acts 9:30).
[20] Acts 9:32-11:18 lacks temporal references, so it is possible that these events were occurring during some of the other chapters in Acts 8-11. Peter was in Jerusalem while Paul was there (Gal 1:18) and was arrested in Jerusalem in Acts 12:3. It is likely that Acts 8-11 were all occurring in overlapping time periods.
[21] Paul claimed to spend several years in ministry in Syria and Cilicia (Gal 1:21). Tarsus was a city in Cilicia and Antioch was a city in Syria. Paul was sent to Tarsus in Acts 9:30. Then in Acts 11:25, Barnabas went to Tarsus, found Paul, and brought him to Antioch to minister with him there. Acts 11:26 reports that Paul and Barnabas ministered in Antioch “for a whole year” before going on the famine visit to Jerusalem (Acts 11:27-30; 12:25).
[22] The territory of Herod Agrippa I grew over his reign. Bruce, 276.
[23] The events of Acts 12:1-23, therefore, occurred sometime between 41-44 AD since that was the only time King Herod Agrippa I was over Jerusalem. According to various dating issues, the persecution was mostly likely 42 or 43 AD. Two issues lead to this conclusion. First, Herod Agrippa was already dead before Passover in 44 AD. Second, Herod Agrippa was otherwise occupied in Rome in 12 AD. Bruce, 276-278.
[24] Paul reported that he was caught up to the third heavens fourteen years before writing Second Corinthians (56 AD). This places the vision in about 42 AD. It is likely that this was the vision that Paul reported as a purpose for his trip to Jerusalem in 44 AD (Gal 2:2). Paul wrote that he went up “according to a revelation” to set before the pillars of the church his gospel and calling. It seems that Paul wanted to ensure from other godly leaders that his vision and what he learned from Jesus during that vision were legitimate. Thus Paul was able to say that he did not receive his gospel from a human source nor was he taught it, but he obtained his gospel by a revelation of Jesus Christ (Gal 1:12).
[25] Paul and Barnabas ministered in Antioch together for a whole year (Acts 11:26). They then went to Jerusalem on the famine relief visit. During their famine relief visit, Herod died in 44 AD.
[26] A significant drought and famine occurred in 44 AD in Judea under Claudius. The effects of that famine lasted from 45-48 AD. Bruce, 278-279.
[27] It is most likely that Galatians 2:1-10 and the famine relief visit of Acts 11:27-30; 12:25 are the same event. See the footnote on dating Paul’s letter to the Galatians for details.
[28] The biblical narrative places the death of Herod Agrippa I (44 AD) near this persecution. Therefore, they are both dated in 44 AD here.
[29] It is not certain that Peter left Jerusalem at this time. See the footnote for the change of leadership in the Jerusalem church.
[30] It is possible that Peter simply stayed in Jerusalem in a different place for a period. However, there are three things that indicate that he left Jerusalem at this time. First, in Acts 15:13-21, it is James who made the final verdict at the Jerusalem council. In Acts 21:18, James was clearly leading the church at Jerusalem. Therefore, Acts 12:17 could be the time when leadership of the Jerusalem church passed from Peter to James. Second, Peter is reported as having an itinerant ministry that reaches to Corinth (1 Cor 1:12; 3:22; 9:5) as well as Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia (1 Peter 1:1). Finally, church tradition, such as Eusebius, Church History, 3.1.1-2 says that Peter was involved in itinerant ministry and eventually died at Rome.
[31] Eusebius wrote, “Such was the condition of the Jews. Meanwhile the holy apostles and disciples of our Saviour were dispersed throughout the world. Parthia, according to tradition, was allotted to Thomas as his field of labor, Scythia to Andrew, and Asia to John, who after he had lived some time there, died at Ephesus. Peter appears to have preached in Pontus, Galatia, Bithynia, Cappadocia, and Asia to the Jews of the dispersion” (Eusebius, Church History, 3.1.1-2). Since Eusebius was written in the fourth century, not all details in that book should be accepted. Therefore, while Eusebius indicated a dispersion of the Twelve throughout the world, there are few early sources that provide any details.
[32] The Acts of Thomas are a dubious historical source that were probably written in the third century AD. However, there is a persistent witness from early in Indian Christian history (clearly established by the fourth century) that Thomas did begin the church in what is now Kerala and was martyred in India. Some have suggested that the Acts of Thomas are mostly fiction but built around some truth. This suggestion seems likely.
[33] There is little internal evidence in the book of James to indicate the exact circumstances and date of this book. However, it is commonly argued that this epistle was either the first or one of the earliest epistles based on theological and thematic elements in the book. Since James was killed in 62 AD, this book was written before that date.
[34] There is little inside of Acts 13-14 that provides dating for this missionary journey. In Acts 13:7, Sergius Paulus is mentioned as the proconsul. Sergius Paulus is mentioned on a few inscriptions from that time period, but the data is inconclusive from those inscriptions for dating his life with any certainty. However, the death of Herod in 44 AD and the Gallio as proconsul of Achaia in 51-52 AD provide some indication of how long Paul’s journey to Cyprus and Galatia was. Between 44 AD to 51 AD, the following events occurred. (1) Paul and Barnabas returned from Jerusalem to Antioch – Acts 12:25. (2) Paul and Barnabas were sent by the church at Syrian Antioch – Acts 13:1-4. (3) Paul and Barnabas evangelized Cyprus – Acts 13:4-12. (4) Paul and Barnabas evangelized Pisidian Antioch, Iconium, Lystra, and Derbe – Acts 13:13-14:21a. (5) Paul and Barnabas returned to Pisidian Antioch, Iconium, and Lystra to establish churches – Acts 14:21-23. (6) Paul and Barnabas evangelized Perga – Acts 14:25. (7) Paul and Barnabas returned to Syrian Antioch and spent “considerable time with the disciples” – Acts 14:26-28. (8) A dispute arose about whether uncircumcised Gentles could follow Jesus without circumcision – Acts 15:1-3. (9) The concerned parties travelled to Jerusalem and held a council to judge on the requirements for Gentiles to come to Christ – Acts 15:4-29. (10) Paul and Barnabas travelled with the Jerusalem letter to Antioch with Silas and Judas and spent some time there – Acts 15:30-35. (11) After some time, Paul and Barnabas determined to resume their missionary activity, but split and formed two different teams – Acts 15:36-40. (12) Paul travelled with Silas overland through Syria and Cilicia to strengthen the churches (Acts 15:41). (13) Paul spent time with the Galatian churches – Acts 16:1-5. (14) Paul travelled overland from Galatia to Troas and determined to travel to Macedonia – Acts 16:6-10. (15) Paul and Silas evangelized Philippi and established the church there – Acts 16:11-40. (16) Paul and Silas evangelized Thessalonica – Acts 17:1-9. (17) Paul and Barnabas evangelized Berea – Acts 17:10-15. (17) Paul and his team evangelized Athens – Acts 17:16-34. (18) Paul established himself as a tent-maker in Corinth – Acts 18:1-3. (19) Paul and his team wrote 1 and 2 Thessalonians. (20) Paul and his team began the evangelization of Corinth where they stayed for one and a half years – Acts 18:1-17. Between these events there was significant travel. Trying to place all of these events together, most have concluded that Paul and Barnabas were only able to spent 1-3 years on their journey to Cyrpus and Galatia, yet were able to establish churches throughout those areas.
[35] There is some debate about whether Paul’s letter to the Galatians occurred before or after the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15). The debate between these views is significant enough that some scholars prefer an early date in 48 AD where Paul wrote this letter before going to Jerusalem. A minority of scholars favor a view that Paul wrote Galatians after the Jerusalem council in about 50 AD. The primary reason is that Paul provided his testimony in Galatians 1:11-2:10 to demonstrate that he did not receive his gospel from man nor was he taught it, but rather Paul received his gospel by revelation (Gal 1:12). In his testimony, Paul only had two visits to Jerusalem. First, for fifteen days after he went fled from Damascus (Gal 1:18; Acts 9:26-30). In Acts, Paul visited Jerusalem a second time to deliver a gift from the church at Antioch to the churches of Judea (Acts 11:27-30). Paul swore on oath that he retailed to the Galatians all his interactions with the other apostles (Gal 1:19-20). The view that holds to the early writing of Galatians sees Galatians 2:1-10 as a private meeting with Peter, James, and John during the famine visit of Acts 11:27-30. The view that holds to the later writing of Galatians sees Galatians 2:1-10 as corresponding to the Jerusalem council. The primary issue with that view is that Paul either lied in his testimony in Galatians 1:11-2:10 or he simply forgot about one of his visits to Jerusalem. For a more detailed discussion of the recipients and dating of Galatians, see Schreiner, 22-31.
[36] It is unknown how long Barnabas travelled in Cyprus. He was later known to the churches of Corinth (1 Cor 9:6), which indicates that he continued his itinerant ministry.
[37] The primary historical marker for this date is Gallio’s time as proconsul from July 1, 51 to June 30, 52. Therefore, it is likely that Paul’s ministry in Corinth spanned that time.
[38] See the footnote on Claudius’ expulsion of the Jews from Rome for indications about this missionary activity. The gospel spread to Rome far before Paul wrote his letter to the church at Rome around 57 AD.
[39] The dating of Paul’s mission to Corinth is indicated by Gallio’s time as proconsul of Achaia (Acts 18:12). Gallio served as the proconsul of Achaia from July 1, 51 to June 30, 52. Acts 18 indicates that Paul’s 18-months in Corinth corresponded to the time Gallio was in office. The Gallio inscription at Delphi provides evidence for these dates. See Schnabel, Acts, 761.
[40] Internal evidence is that Paul wrote these letters shortly after leaving from Thessalonica.
[41] Claudius “banned from Rome all the Jews, who were continually making disturbances at the instigation of one Chrestus” (Suetonius, Divus Claudius 25.4). Historians commonly assume that “Chrestus” was a miswriting of Christ by a pagan author. Therefore, these Jewish disturbances are presumed to be against Christian missionary activity in Rome. The most likely dating is 49-50 AD for this event. In Acts 18:2, Paul met Aquilla and Priscilla in Corinth who had “recently” (Greek prasphatos) come to Corinth from Rome due to this expulsion. The term “recently” is unclear and uncommon, therefore it is only possible to say that Paul arrived in Corinth either a few months or a few years after the expulsion of the Jews from Rome.
[42] Luke reported that Paul spent three years in Ephesus (Acts 20:31, cf Acts 19:8-10). During this time all of Asia Minor was evangelized (Acts 19:10).
[43] Paul’s letter to the Colossians indicates that Epaphras planted that church (Col 1:7-8). Internal evidence in Colossians and Philemon indicates that Epaphras established the gospel in three cities during that time (esp. Col 4:13-17).
[44] Paul wrote, “I will stay in Ephesus until Pentecost,” (1 Cor 16:8), indicating that this letter was written during his Ephesian ministry. Additionally, Paul wrote instructions in 1 Corinthians about the collection for the churches of Judea (1 Cor 16:1-4). Paul then travelled to Judea in 57 AD to deliver that offering, which provides additional evidence that this letter as written shortly before 57 AD.
[45] In Acts 24:27, Paul was in prison when Porcius Festus succeeded Felix. Historical data indicates that this succession occurred in 59 AD. Therefore, Paul’s two years in prison (“after two years had passed” – Acts 24:27) were from 57-59 AD. Paul then appealed to Caeasar. He began his ship journey to Rome in 59 AD but was shipwrecked (Acts 27:1-28:14). They did not arrive until 60 AD. Since Paul was under house arrest in Rome for a further two years (Acts 28:30), the date of his Roman imprisonment was 60-62 AD. Additionally, in Acts 24:24, Felix was married to Drusilla the sister of King Herod Agrippa II. Their marriage did not occur until at least 54 AD (See Bruce 283-284).
[46] Second Corinthians was written shortly after First Corinthians. This fact is established because Paul was still writing to them about the offering to be taken to the churches of Judea in 57 AD (2 Cor 8-9, cf., 1 Cor 16:1-4). In addition, Second Corinthians describes Paul and Titus’ travel in such a way that it indicates that this letter was written shortly before Paul’s arrival at Corinth (2 Cor 1:15-2:4; 2:12-13; 7:5-16; 8:16-19). In brief, Paul had planned to visit Corinth on his way to Macedonia, but instead chose to send Titus to prepare the Corinthians for his arrival not wanting another painful visit (1:15-2:4). As Paul travelled from Ephesus towards Corinth, he passed through Troas, expecting to find Titus there. However, Titus was not there, which troubled Paul (2:12-13). However, Paul and Titus reunited in Macedonia, where Paul received his report (7:5-16). After receiving he report, Paul remained in Macedonia and sent Titus and another brother to Corinth ahead of him with Second Corinthians (8:16-19). Paul was planning to come to Corinth soon for his third visit (12:14; 13:1). From the timeline, it is not entirely clear when Paul’s second visit to Corinth was. Most likely, Paul took a trip to Corinth during his three years at Ephesus (see Acts 19:21).
[47] The only evidence in the New Testament of Paul’s work in Illyricum is Romans 15:19. If Paul personally preached the gospel in Illyricum, it could have been during the period between being in Ephesus and returning to Jerusalem (55-56 AD). It would have been before Paul finished writing the book of Romans in 56/57 AD.
[48] This was Paul’s third visit to Corinth (see 2 Cor 12:14; 13:1). It is unclear when Paul’s second visit to Corinth occurred. Acts 19:21 describes Paul’s desire to travel to Achaia, which would have included Corinth, but does not say whether that visit occurred at that time.
[49] The Feast of Unleavened Bread and Passover fell on April 7, 57 AD. The Jewish calendar is lunar. This date was approximated based upon modern Jewish date calculators. Therefore, Paul left Philippi after April 7, 57 AD.
[50] Acts 24:27 provides a historical marker showing that Paul was arrested in 57 AD and in prison in Caesarea for two years. In 59 AD, Porcius Festus succeeded Felix as the Roman leader of Judea. Since Paul had been in jail for two years by 59 AD, we know that Pau was arrested in 57 AD.
[51] From Acts 24:27-27:1, it seems that Paul was sent from Caesarea to Rome during the first year of Porcius Festus. Since Paul’s journey started so late in 59 AD, the storms had begun (Acts 27:9). This resulted in a shipwreck on Malta, where they were stuck for three months (Acts 28:1-11). Acts 28:11 says that they left on a ship that had wintered on Malta, meaning that they did not leave Malta until 60 AD.
[52] The Prison Epistles were all likely written during Paul’s imprisonment at Rome. This assumption is made based on internal evidence in these letters.
[53] Josephus wrote, “When therefore Ananus was of this disposition, he thought he now had a proper opportunity [to exercise his authority]. Festus was now dead; and Albinus was but upon the road. So he assembled the Sanhedrin of judges, and brought before them the brother of Jesus who was called Christ, whose name was James, and some of his companions. And when he had formed an accusation against them as breakers of the law, he delivered them to be stoned” (Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, 20.9).
[54] Most modern New Testament scholars believe that Paul was released after his imprisonment in Rome from 60-62 AD (e.g., Köstenberger 28-32). He then travelled to visit churches he had previously planted and engaged in further pioneer ministry.
[55] One purpose of the book of Romans was for Paul to recruit the church at Rome to support him in a new mission to Spain (Rom 15:23-28). Clement, the leader of the church at Rome at the end of the first century, wrote that Paul “taught righteousness to the whole world, and came to the limits of the West, bearing his witness before the rulers” (1 Clement 5:7). It is doubtful that Clement considered Rome to be “the limits of the West.” It is more likely that Paul had pioneered the gospel ministry in Spain, although this cannot be established with certainty.
[56] Tacitus described Nero placing the blame of the fire in Rome on local Christians. “Consequently, to get rid of the report, Nero fastened the guilt and inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their abominations, called Christians by the populace. Christus, from whom the name had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilate, and a most mischievous superstition, thus checked for the moment, again broke out not only in Judea, the first source of the evil, but even in Rome” (Cornelius Tacitus, Annals 15.44). This event was the first major persecution against Christians by the Roman government.
[57] Paul left Timothy in Ephesus to deal with false teachers in Asia Minor (1 Tim 1:3-4). He also said that he was went on to Macedonia from Ephesus (1 Tim 1:3). Therefore, it is most likely that Paul wrote First Timothy from Macedonia. In addition, Paul indicates that he visited Troas, Corinth, and Miletus after his first Roman imprisonment, indicating that he broadly travelled to churches he previously planted after his release. He left his cloak in Troas, indicating a visit (2 Tim 4:13). Paul wrote, “Erastus has remained at Corinth” (2 Tim 4:20), which could imply that Paul left Erastus there just as he left Timothy in Ephesus and Titus in Crete. If so, then this clause indicates that Paul visited Corinth. Again, Paul wrote, “I left Trophimus sick at Miletus” (2 Tim 4:20), which clearly indicates that Paul visited Miletus. The cumulation of this evidence is that Paul visited the churches he pioneered in Acts 13-19 after his release in 62 AD.
[58] Paul’s intention was for Timothy to have a temporary task of correcting false teachers in Asia Minor. The temporary nature of this charge is indicated by two temporal clauses in 1 Timothy. “I write these things, hoping to come to you soon” (1 Tim 3:14), and “Until I come” (1 Tim 4:13).
[59] In Titus 3:12, Paul called Titus to join him for the winter in Nicopolis. It is most likely that Nicopolis was the capital of Epirus, which was a Roman province adjacent to Achaia. Up until Paul’s mission to Epirus, there is no mention of evangelizing that province in the New Testament. See Köstenberger, 1-2 Timothy and Titus, 353-354.
[60] In Second Timothy, Paul referred to himself as a prisoner (1:8), being in chains (1:18), being bound like a criminal (2:9), and often referred to his suffering (1:12, 2:10; 3:11). Paul indicated that he was near death in prison when he wrote Second Timothy (4:6-8).
[61] Eusebius recounted that Peter and Paul were martyred by Nero at Rome. “Peter appears to have preached in Pontus, Galatia, Bithynia, Cappadocia, and Asia to the Jews of the dispersion. And at last, having come to Rome, he was crucified head-downwards; for he had requested that he might suffer this way. What do we need to say concerning Paul, who preached the gospel of Christ from Jerusalem to Illyricum, and afterwards suffered martyrdom in Rome under Nero? These facts are related by Origen in the third volume of his Commentary on Genesis. After the martyrdom of Paul and Peter, Linus was the first to obtain the episcopate of the church at Rome. Paul mentions him, when writing to Timothy from Rome, in the salutation at the end of the epistle” (Eusebius, History of the Church, 3.1-2). Linus sent greeting to Timothy in 2 Timothy 4:21, giving evidence that he was in Rome near the time of Paul’s death. There are other witnesses the testify about the martyrdom of Peter and Paul, but Eusebius’ testimony is most complete. See 1 Clement 5-6; Ignatius, Romans 5-6; Ascension of Isaiah 4:1-3; Tertullian, Prescription against Heretics, 36. Since Peter and Paul are recorded to have been killed by Nero, their deaths must have preceded Nero’s death in 68 AD. Thus, many assume a date of approximately 66-67 AD for their deaths. This time frame allows for sufficient time for Paul’s missionary journeys as recorded in 1-2 Timothy and Titus, while being before Nero’s death.
[62] A major theme of Second Timothy is that it is a letter of succession to Timothy to continue the Pauline mission after Paul’s death. For example, Köstenberger wrote, “In 2 Timothy Paul seeks to prepare Timothy for assuming the mantle of Paul’s mission (Köstenberger, 1-2 Timothy and Titus, 364).
[ED1]Recalculate… the reign of Tiberius could also be calculated from 12 AD when he began his co-rule with Augustus.
[ED2]Investigate how John 2:20 might help date Jesus’ ministry and this Passover.
[ED3]Probably his third visit. When was his second visit? See 2 Cor 12:14; 13:1
A mosque in the Hinmalayan mountains of South Asia. In South Asia, mosques often look different in different cultures.
When Muslims come to Christ, their relationship to their former religion and culture is a crucial question. In many areas, there are no mature Muslim-Background Believers (MBBs) for new MBBs to learn from regarding what it means to follow Jesus. Therefore, they are left to their own devices to determine their relationship with Islam and their culture. In short, I desire MBBs to continue loving their culture while decisively leaving Islam.
MBBs usually find themselves on one of three paths.
Path #1 – Cultural and Theological Insider. MBB Insiders remain in the mosque and generally follow Islamic religious rituals. They continue regularly at the mosque, including ritual prayers (salaat/namaaz). These believers are often secret in their faith, although some are evangelistic. For example, they might respect both Muhammad and Jesus, the Qur’an, and the Bible. Since there is no separation from Islam, it is difficult to determine where the allegiance of an MBB lies.
The problem is that darkness and light cannot exist together. This approach invariably leads to confusion and syncretism. I have often met supposed MBBs who explained that they have not left the mosque. They tell me they love Jesus and the Injeel Shareef (an Urdu/Arabic word for New Testament). However, on further questioning, they also claim loyalty to Muhammad. I remember being told by one “secret believer,” “We love Jesus, but our faith is in Muhammad.”
Unfortunately, this approach is being touted by many Westerners. It is often called the Insider Movement (IM) in those circles. Among IM practitioners, there are wide varieties. For example, some call themselves IM practitioners when they believe that new MBBs naturally pass through a period of having one foot in Islam and one foot in Christ. I also think that it is expected that many Muslims, as they come to Jesus, will struggle with their identity and community. For a period, they will read both the Qur’an and the Bible. Even after they follow Jesus, they often will not immediately leave the mosque out of fear of their community. This perspective believes that it is normal and good that MBBs will decisively leave the mosque, Muhammad, and the Qur’an as they begin to follow Jesus. Their faith will go from being secret to being public. I have written on the process of the faith of MBBs going public.
However, others within the IM community follow more radical perspectives. They believe that the ideal is that MBBs remain in the mosque even after they follow Jesus. Some Western leaders have even sought to redefine Muhammad as something like an Old Testament prophet who can be used to point Muslims to Jesus. In their ministries, they train MBBs to retain Islam while also following Jesus. The result is generally vast confusion in their disciples. In my experience, most of the disciples in these networks are not sure who they follow. Because of the dynamics in their communities, they are inundated with Islam and do not receive much biblical teaching. The result is that their faith is compromised. These radical IM practices should be rejected. Many churches in the West support ministry to Muslims without realizing that those they support follow these methods. I encourage every church that works with Muslim-focused missionaries to ask them about their perspectives on MBBs and their relationship to Islam and their culture.
Path #2 – Cultural and Theological Outsider. The second path is the polar opposite of the first path. When there is no plan for MBBs to retain their culture as they follow Jesus, many leave their culture by default. They come to faith and are excited to learn about Jesus and the Bible. In their pursuit of Jesus, they join churches far removed from their culture. Sometimes they move from their homes, villages, and families since those things are seen as a hindrance to their new faith. Indeed, persecution is often the spark that causes them to transition. Many change their names to Christian names. In essence, they reject their culture and become cultural Christians. The issue is that once they leave their culture and family, they usually have difficulty ministering to other Muslims. Their family often rejects them. This stops the flow of the gospel into their own community. Over time, the gap between themselves and their community grows. While these believers have a chance to grow strong in their faith, evangelism stops.
In many missiological circles, it is assumed that Paths #1 and #2 are the only possibilities. Therefore, in Muslim ministry, the assumption is that we have to choose between biblical fidelity (Path #2) and evangelistic effectiveness (Path #1). IM practitioners have advanced a dialogue that argues that these are the only two options. Indeed, IM practitioners attack approaches that require Muslims to leave Islam by saying that those approaches do not care about the lost. Their reasoning is that if we care about the lost, we will be ready to compromise on the relationship of MBBs to Islam to win more Muslims to Christ. Many field workers become IM practitioners simply because they think it is the only real option. Honestly, this reasoning sounds a bit crazy to me, but many are persuaded by it.
However, there is a better way. Path #3 provides an opportunity for biblical fidelity and evangelistic effectiveness. We should pray for those IM practitioners who radically argue that an MBB can retain Islam while following Jesus. It is evident that they are deceived. However, we should be gentle and friendly with those of this persuasion. Their love of Muslims and desire to see the kingdom of God advance led them down a path to this deception. Most of them believed that there was no other way.
Path #3 – Cultural Insider Theological Outsider.[1] As cultural insiders, MBBs retain as much of their culture as possible while definitively rejecting Islam as theological outsiders. For example, MBBs are taught that their language, dress, food, and culture are good and should be retained. Indeed, I believe we give great honor to Jesus as each different culture learns to worship Him in its own cultural style. After all, around the throne of God, we will worship Him together in every language (Rev 5:9; 7:9)!
As cultural insiders, MBBs remain in their families while taking a stand for Christ. They keep their jobs, their families, and their homes. They retain their cultural preferences. However, as theological outsiders, they definitely leave Islam. Muslims must make three transitions as they follow Jesus:
1. They must leave the Qur’an and cleave to the Bible.
2. They must leave Muhammad and cleave to Jesus.
3. They must leave the mosque (especially the ritual prayer) and join a local church. It is preferable if this local church is composed of Muslim background believers who worship in a manner that corresponds to the local culture.
Practical Steps
In my experience, there are usually three things that we must do for MBBs and Muslim seekers who are struggling with these issues. First, we need to help them see the majesty of Jesus. We should help MBBs realize that Jesus is God. When MBBs recognize that Jesus is God, then it is easy for them to see that there is no value in following Muhammad. And if there is no value in following Muhammad, then studying the Qur’an and going to the mosque also have no benefit. I hope to publish another blog post soon about how I help MBBs discover the deity of Jesus.
Second, many seekers and MBBs go through a process of comparing Muhammad and Jesus. They often need coaching and teaching as they go through this process. Comparing the lives of Muhammad and Jesus is especially stark when we compare them regarding violence, sex, and marriage. We must have these conversations with seekers and MBBs very sensitively. The reason that these conversations are vital is that most Muslims learn their whole lives that Muhammad is the perfect man (Arabic Al-Insan al-Kamil). They have learned their entire lives to look to his example. As they transition their allegiance to Jesus, seekers and MBBs require coaching to help them let go of the old. I hope to publish another blog post soon about how I help seekers and MBBs compare Jesus and Muhammad.
Third, MBBs require coaching about how to live their lives as followers of Jesus while retaining their culture. Often, there are no reliable guides for MBBs at this point. The ideal situation is that mature MBBs who follow Jesus with their whole hearts but love their culture guide them. If there are no such MBBs, then training and coaching is required. I have written a few blog posts on this subject:
Click on the links above to go to those blog posts. I also intend to write another blog post shortly about what we call the Three Transitions in our work. The Three Transitions again are:
MBBs must leave the Qur’an and cleave to the Bible.
MBBs must leave Muhammad and cleave to Jesus.
MBBs must leave the mosque (especially the ritual prayer) and cleave to a local church.
The most relevant passages of Scripture on this subject are in 1 Corinthians 7-10. Here, let me share in brief three key passages. In a future blog post on the three transitions, I will go into more detail.
Biblical Passages on the Three Transitions:
First, 1 Corinthians 10:14-22 is clear that believers must separate from their former religious practices. In that passage, Paul told the Corinthians that they could eat meat sacrificed to idols as long as it did not impede the faith of others (1 Cor 8:1-13). He taught that believers should give up their freedoms to advance the gospel (1 Cor 9:1-27). In that context, Paul wanted to ensure that the Corinthians did not misunderstand and continue their former religious practices. Read 1 Corinthians 10:14-22 and note the following key verses.
• “So then, my dear friends, flee from idolatry.” 1 Cor 10:14
• “You cannot drink the cup of the Lord and the cup of demons. You cannot share in the Lord’s table and the table of demons.” 1 Cor 10:21
It is sometimes a slow process for MBBs to transition out of the mosque. An excellent biblical picture of that process is Nicodemus, who first came to Jesus by night, in secret (John 3:2). He later took Jesus’ body and buried him (John 19:39), which was a very public step. Rushing this process often causes significant long-term issues, such as new MBBs being expelled from their community. The best method for helping MBBs to make this transition is to slowly and carefully teach them from Scripture that Jesus is entirely God. When new MBBs believe that Jesus is God, then allegiance to Muhammad, the Qur’an, and the mosque lose their meaning. Additionally, many new MBBs or Muslim seekers must go through a process of comparing Jesus and Muhammad as their allegiance shifts from Muhammad to Jesus.
Second, 1 Corinthians 7:17-24 emphasizes that MBBs should remain in their community and culture. While new MBBs need to separate from Islam, coaching new MBBs to stay in their community by keeping the same jobs and living in their own homes is essential. While we want MBBs to leave Islam, we do not want them to abandon their culture and family. For example, read 1 Corinthians 7:17-24. Here are a few relevant teachings from this passage:
• “Let each one live his life in the situation the Lord assigned when God called him” (1 Cor 7:17).MBBs should maintain their family relationships, jobs, and communities as cultural insiders.
• “Was anyone already circumcised when he was called? He should not undo his circumcision” (1 Cor 7:18). This command was to Jews who followed Jesus. They were called to retain their Jewish identity even as they followed Jesus. The same can be said of Muslims who follow Jesus. However, there is a significant difference between Muslims who follow Jesus and Jews who follow Jesus. Judaism is built on the Old Testament, a true revelation from God. Islam is built on the Qur’an and Muhammad, a false book and a false prophet. Therefore, while Muslims who follow Jesus should retain much of their culture, whatever pertains to Islam theologically should be discarded as they follow Jesus.
• “Brothers and sisters, each person is to remain with God in the situation in which he was called” (1 Cor 7:24). 1 Corinthians 7:17-24 ends by reinforcing the teaching that each person should remain in their own situation. This teaching should safeguard against extracting new believers from their context.
Note that Paul commanded the Corinthians to remain in their situation (1 Cor 7:17-24) and separate from their former religious practices (1 Cor 10:14-22).
Third, 1 Corinthians 9:19-23 emphasizes taking on the culture of others to more effectively proclaim the gospel to them. Paul said, “To the Jews I became like a Jew” (9:20). In other words, Paul emphasized taking on his own culture to win his own people. Paul was clear through this passage about the purpose of taking on the culture of others. Multiple times, Paul said he took on the culture of others to win them to Christ. In summary, Paul said, “I have become all things to all people, so that I may by every possible means save some” (9:22). In the same way, MBBs should be careful to follow the culture of their people. As they reject Islam, their community will begin asking questions about them. However, as they live godly lives before then and continue to adhere to their culture, many of those questions will be reduced or removed.
Let me tell the story of Muhammad. Muhammad was an MBB who was beaten by his fellow villagers because of his faith in Jesus. They broke his arm and refused to help him get medical attention in the nearby city. He had his arm in a sling for seven days without proper medical care. Muhammad’s friends, family, and neighbors told him to ask Jesus to help him because they would not. Every day, he prayed for grace to love his friends, family, and neighbors. Through pain and difficulty, he showed Jesus to his village through his character. Seven days later, the village elders essentially decided that Muhammad was a better Muslim than all of them. They made the men who beat him publicly apologize and pay for his medical care. Muhammad was a beautiful picture of someone who embraced his culture while leaving Islam.
While this path is not easy, it is a good path. It permits both biblical fidelity and evangelistic effectiveness. However, it is a path that will often lead to persecution and difficulty. Pray for your MBB friends. It seems that persecution is a normal part of the experience of Muslims who choose to follow Jesus.
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[1] I did not coin this term. Like many things I have learned on the field, I was taught this paradigm by an MBB. I read about this paradigm in Abu Jaz, “Our Believing Community is a Cultural Insider but Theological Outsider,” in Muslim Conversions to Christ: A Critique of Insider Movements in Islamic Contexts, ed. by Ayman S. Ibrahim and Ant Greenham (New York: Peter Lang, 2018), 423-430.
Muslims tend to be obsessed with ritual purity. Islam demands this obsession for the person who wants God to hear their prayers. This blog post aims to explain this obsession and discuss the implications of this obsession for sharing the gospel with Muslims. I believe that understanding and framing Scripture in terms of purity issues is cultural key that will help most Muslim workers communicate the Bible well to their Muslim friends. Please note that I am writing from a South Asian context. It is possible that these cultural issues will differ from place to place.
This blog post is lengthy. The reason is that concepts of purity in the Bible and the Qur’an are complex. In fact, I honestly feel like this article is too short to do justice to the issues involved. I have omitted quite a bit to keep this to a readable length.
Since this blog post will be longer than most, here is the outline:
Part 1: Islamic Regulations Regarding Ritual Purity
Part 2: The Law of Moses and Ritual Purity
Part 3: The New Covenant and Ritual Purity
Part 4: Baptism, the Holy Spirit, and Ritual Purity
Part 5: Sharing the Gospel and Ritual Purity (the most practical section)
Part 6: The Sermon on the Mount and Ritual Purity (the second most practical section)
PART 1: ISLAMIC REGULATIONS REGARDING RITUAL PURITY
Probably the best way to understand the issue of ritual purity in Islam is to study its regulations regarding wudu and ghusl. Wudu is a partial washing, whereas ghusl is a complete washing. Muslims generally perform Wudu before prayers at a mosque. Ghusl is a full bath taken in the privacy of one’s home.
In general, wudu begins when a Muslim intends in their heart to become ritually pure through an act of cleansing. Then in this order, they (1) wash their face, (2) wash their arms from the fingertips to the elbows, (3) wipe their head and (4) wash both feet up to the ankles. Washing the face includes gargling water and sniffing water into the nostrils to clean these. There are slight differences in how different sects perform wudu.
You might be asking, “Why is ritual purity important for a Muslim?” This is a great question. Perhaps the two most important things that someone cannot do while they are impure/unsanctified are (1) pray and (2) read or recite the Qur’an. First, a person must become ritually pure; then, they can pray and study the Qur’an. An impure person is not permitted to come close to God in Islam.
Wudu and Ghusl are required whenever someone becomes ritually impure. Here are a few particulars of what this means:
Going to the bathroom (urination or defecation) and passing gas makes someone ritually impure. These all require wudu to become ritually pure.
One of the most interesting fatwas[1] I read recently was a man asking for guidance regarding issues passing gas. He has so much trouble passing gas that he could not finish wudu without passing gas. As a result, he could never become ritually pure. Thus he had a fear that all his prayers would be invalid. If he could not become ritually pure, then he could not pray. If he could not pray, then what would he do? You could feel this man’s franticness in his question.[2]
Sex makes someone ritually impure. However, sex requires the full ghusl rather than a simple wudu to become ritually pure. Suppose someone performs ghusl with an intention for worship to become ritually pure and includes the wudu as part of the ghusl. In that case, wudu is not required after ghusl. However, many perform ghusl and then wudu to become pure again.
Islamic sites are full of detailed rules on exactly what kind of sex makes someone impure and what does not break purity. There are disagreements among Muslim scholars on some of the detailed issues. To followers of Jesus, it is strange to read Islamic scholars discussing sexual acts in the detail that they do to determine precisely when ritual purity is broken. But such is the curse of any system where ritually purity is obtained through rituals.
Most Muslims believe that someone simply touching their (or any) penis makes someone ritually impure. However, merely touching a penis only requires wudu to regain purity.
Menstruation and post-natal bleeding make someone ritually impure. Therefore, a woman cannot become ritually pure during her monthly menstrual cycle. It seems to me that one implication is that a woman cannot have her prayers heard during her monthly cycle. Ghusl is required to attain ritual purity at the end of the menstrual cycle.
The rules on ritual purity are more complex and detailed than what I have written above. Different schools have different opinions, but these are true in general. To summarize, Muslims cannot pray unless they are ritually pure. According to Islam, Muslims become ritually pure through the washing rituals of wudu and ghusl.
Here are four additional anecdotes to illustrate the importance of purity in the lives of Muslims.
Muslim men often squat to urinate because of purity rules. The reason is that a Muslim’s clothes must also be ritually pure for them to be able to pray. When a man urinates, if even a drop of urine splatters on his pants, his pants are unclean and cannot be worn for prayers.
Pakistan means “the land of the pure.” This name reveals much about the felt needs of Muslims in South Asia! Before the Partition of India and Pakistan, Muslims often fretted about how to live as Muslims while under non-Muslim rule properly. For them, it was natural to break away from the British and Hindus to make a land characterized by ritual purity.
During the Covid pandemic, Muslims fretted about Covid regulations related to ritual purity. For example, alcohol is haram (forbidden) in Islam. Therefore, many Muslims asked whether alcohol-based hand sanitizers were also haram and whether they would make them impure and invalidate their prayers. Muslims asked a similar question about whether using alcohol-based cleaners to clean a mosque facility would make the entire mosque unclean. A third concern was whether Covid testing, which required swabs to enter the nose and mouth, would invalidate a fast. Muslims are not permitted to have anything enter their nose or mouth during a fast.
I recently read an anecdote about Imam Abu Hanifa (who holds importance among Sunni Muslims similar to Martin Luther among Protestants). It said, “For forty years he said his morning prayers with the wudu he had performed for his isha prayer (the night prayer).”[3] This claim is that Hanifa guarded his ritual purity so carefully that he did not make love to his wife, go to the bathroom, pass gas, or do anything else to break impurity from the evening to the morning for forty years. While the accuracy of this anecdote is unlikely, it illustrates the importance of ritual purity in the life of Muslims.
PART 2: THE LAW OF MOSES AND RITUAL PURITY
As followers of Jesus, we should ask how these rules in Islam relate to the Bible. We will address this question in multiple parts. First, we will look at ritual purity in the Law of Moses, which Muslims call the Taurat Sharif. Then we will look at the ritual purity in the New Testament, which Muslims call the Injeel Sharif.
The Law of Moses contains regulations similar (but not identical) to those in Islam. The book of Leviticus, in particular, is full of these kinds of rules. Here are some examples:[4]
“If one of the animals that you use for food dies, anyone who touches its carcass will be unclean until evening. Anyone who eats some of its carcass is to wash his clothes and will be unclean until evening. Anyone who carries its carcass must wash his clothes and will be unclean until evening.” Leviticus 11:39-40
“When a woman becomes pregnant and gives birth to a male child, she will be unclean seven days, as she is during the days of her menstrual impurity.” Leviticus 12:2b
“The person who has a case of serious skin disease is to have his clothes torn and his hair hanging loose, and he must cover his mouth and cry out, ‘Unclean, unclean!’ He will remain unclean as long as he has the disease; he is unclean. He must live alone in a place outside the camp.” Leviticus 13:45-46
“When a man has an emission of semen, he is to bathe himself completely with water, and he will remain unclean until evening. Any clothing or leather on which there is an emission of semen is to be washed with water, and it will remain unclean until evening. If a man sleeps with a woman and has an emission of semen, both of them are to bathe with water, and they will remain unclean until evening.” Leviticus 15:16-18
Indeed, the issue of ritual purity is present in the Law of Moses. Many of these rules are like those in Islam. However, the Law of Moses is even stricter. For example, if a man and woman have sex, even after bathing, their impurity would last until the evening (Lev 15:18). In contrast, according to Islam, ghusl removes the impurity immediately. Significantly, there is not a one-to-one correlation of purity rules between the Law of Moses and the Qur’an because it is one indication (of many) of discontinuity between these books.[5]
The results of impurity in the Law of Moses are significant. Here are a few verses about the consequences of ritual impurity:
“You must keep the Israelites from their uncleanness, so that they do not die by defiling my tabernacle that is among them.” Leviticus 15:31
“Be holy because I, the Lord your God, am holy.” Leviticus 19:2b
“Anyone who touches a body of a person who has died, and does not purify himself, defiles the Tabernacle of the Lord. That person will be cut off from Israel.” Numbers 19:13
In simple terms, a person could not worship God in the Law of Moses when they were ritually impure. If they broke the purity laws, they would be exiled from God’s people.
Later, the prophets declared the curse of God on the people of Israel using terms of ritual impurity. For example, Ezekiel wrote, “’Therefore, as I live’ – this is the declaration of the Lord God – ‘I will withdraw and show you no pity, because you have defiled my sanctuary with all of your abhorrent acts and detestable practices’” (Ezek 5:11). In this verse, God declared His intention to judge His people because of their ritual impurity, i.e., because they defiled God’s sanctuary.
Here are four things we can learn from the focus on ritual purity in the Old Testament:
God is holy. He wants His people to be holy. Sometimes, I think that Christians have lost a focus on personal holiness. The reason is because of the emphasis against hypocrisy in the New Testament. However, Scripture shows that God desires His people to be holy both inside and out. The answer to hypocrisy, which we will discuss below, is not to abandon holiness but to pursue the kind of holiness taught in the Sermon on the Mount (Matthew 5-7) that is both internal and external.
The laws regulating ritual purity in Islam have similarities to the Law of Moses. Therefore, one way to look at Islam is that it is an attempt to return to the system that was in place before Jesus died on the cross for our sins, ascended to heaven, and gave us the Holy Spirit.
Even more, Islamic law conflicts with the Law of Moses. While Islamic law relating to purity has similarities to the Law of Moses, the details are different. These are two different sets of laws regarding ritual purity. Since there are differences in details, these two systems conflict, so the reader must determine one of three options. The first option is that both systems are false. The second option is that the Law of Moses is true, and the Qur’an is false. The third option is that the Qur’an is true, and the Law of Moses is false. As a follower of Jesus, I believe the second option is correct. What I mean is that I think that the Law of Moses is true and that the Qur’an is false. Muslims have no good options here. Their preferable choice is the third option, but the Qur’an testifies that the Qur’an and the Law of Moses are not in conflict (see, for example, Qur’an 5:44-48). Muslims have tried to explain this by saying that the Law of Moses has been corrupted, which is an unsatisfying answer for many reasons. In the end, the conflict between the Law of Moses and the Qur’an is one indication that the Qur’an is not from God.
Both Islam and historic Judaism strongly emphasize ritual purity related to worship.
PART 3: THE NEW COVENANT AND RITUAL PURITY
One of the great truths of the New Covenant is that the sacrifice of our Lord Jesus freed us from the regulations of ritual purity of the Law of Moses. There are many places in the New Testament where we could demonstrate this truth. Here we will look briefly at Galatians.
In the book of Galatians, the Law of Moses is described as a temporary guardian (Greek pedagogue) to watch over us until the fullness came in Jesus. Before the Law of Moses, God made a promise with Abraham, including the promise that “All the nations will be blessed in you” (Genesis 12:3; Galatians 3:8). God chose Abraham from among the nations and made a covenant with him that He would make his name great and make him into a great nation (Genesis 12:1-3; 15:1-21, etc.). The point is that this promise from God to Abraham came 430 years before God gave the Law to Moses (Galatians 3:17).
From Galatians 3:15-26, I want to explain the relationship of God’s Promise to Abraham to the Law of Moses and how this relates to the Gospel of Jesus.
“Brothers and sisters, I’m using a human illustration. No one sets aside or makes additions to a validated human will” (Gal 3:15). The point here is that once a promise is made, it cannot be changed. God made a promise to Abraham. Therefore, rules given after the Promise to Abraham cannot alter or invalidate that Promise.
“Now the promises were spoken to Abraham and to his seed. He does not say “and to seeds,” as though referring to many, but referring to one, and to your seed, who is Christ” (Gal 3:16). Throughout the Law of Moses (Genesis to Deuteronomy), there are numerous references to the Seed of Abraham. The meaning of this verse is that Jesus is the natural successor of these references. Jesus is the successor of the Promise that God gave through Abraham (see also Galatians 3:8).
“My point is this: The law, which came 430 years later, does not invalidate a covenant previously established by God and thus cancel the promise” (Gal 3:17). God made a covenant with Abraham, then 430 years later gave the Law through Moses. Since the Promise precedes the Law, the Law cannot cancel the Promise. This argument is legal reasoning that a promise or covenant cannot be changed.
“For if the inheritance is based on the law, it is no longer based on the promise; but God has graciously given it to Abraham through the promise” (Gal 3:18). This verse simply provides further clarification. The inheritance is either based on either the Promise or the Law. The inheritance means being the people of God in this passage. Since the Promise came first, the Law, which came later, cannot abrogate it. Therefore, the gospel of Jesus stands firmly on the promise God gave to Abraham and is a continuation of that promise.
“Why, then, was the law given? It was added for the sake of transgressions until the Seed to whom the promise was made would come” (Gal 3:19a). Since the Law of Moses does not provide salvation, but rather the promise God gave Abraham does, the natural question is, “Why, then, was the law given?” The answer is that God gave it to restrain sin in the people of God until the coming of the promised Seed, who is Jesus. Therefore, the Law of Moses was a temporary restraint placed upon God’s people to keep them from sinning before Jesus.
“Is the law therefore contrary to God’s promises? Absolutely not! For if the law had been granted with the ability to give life, then righteousness would certainly be on the basis of the law” (Gal 3:21). The Law of Moses was the most perfect law that could be given (see Rom 7:12). It was not against the promises of God. Indeed, if a law could give life, then that law would have been the one able to do so. As Galatians clarifies, the new system under Jesus is that He purified His people through His sacrificial death and then gave them the Holy Spirit. So, now God’s people do not become holy by adhering to the Law. Instead, they become holy by the guidance and power of God’s Spirit. The primary difference between these two systems is that the Law of Moses was a perfect system of rules. However, followers of Jesus today walk into holiness by the power of God living in us.
“But the Scripture imprisoned everything under sin’s power, so that the promise might be given on the basis of faith in Jesus Christ to those who believe. 23 Before this faith came, we were confined under the law, imprisoned until the coming faith was revealed” (Gal 3:22-23). In verse 22, “the Scripture” that has imprisoned everything under sin’s power is the Law of Moses. When we read the Law and seek to obey it completely, we realize our sin and inability to draw close to God (see Galatians 3:10-14). Being confined under the Law of Moses only occurred until Jesus came.
“The law, then, was our guardian (Greek pedagogue) until Christ, so that we could be justified by faith” (Gal 3:24). The Greek word pedagogue here is one of my favorites. We do not have an exact term in English for a pedagogue. So, some people have used “teacher” or “guardian” to try to translate this idea. However, a pedagogue in ancient Rome was an enslaved person assigned by a landowner to look over their children. More than anything, the job of a pedagogue was to discipline the child into obedience.[6] The Law of Moses was to serve as a pedagogue for the people of God. As a pedagogue disciplined children for the landowner, the Law of Moses disciplined God’s people for God. The function of the Law of Moses as a pedagogue had a time limit, “until Christ.” Therefore, when Jesus Christ came, the Law of Moses no longer served as a pedagogue.
“But since that faith has come, we are no longer under a guardian, 26 for through faith you are all sons of God in Christ Jesus” (Gal 3:25-26). Since Jesus has come, we are no longer under the control of the pedagogue of the Law. Instead, we have freedom from that Law and have gained maturity in Christ.
Now, the astute reader of Galatians should be asking questions like, “If we are not under the Law of Moses, then what is the new law we are under?” Or, “Does this mean that we can do whatever we want?”
The answer to these questions is that God gave us His Holy Spirit (see Galatians 5:16-25). A key verse is, “But if you are led by the Spirit, you are not under the law” (Gal 5:18). This verse means that if an individual has the gift of the Holy Spirit and is led by God’s Spirit, he is no longer obligated to adhere to the Law of Moses. If the Spirit leads us, sin will automatically be removed from our lives (Gal 5:19-21). And God will transform our character by the Spirit (Gal 5:22-23). The gift of the Holy Spirit should make a follower of Jesus than those who follow Islamic law or the Law of Moses. Another way of saying this is that if someone claims to be a follower of Jesus, yet their life is not holy, then the Spirit of God is not leading them. If the Spirit is not leading them, they are not truly in Jesus.
Therefore, followers of Jesus are free from the particular rules of the Law of Moses related to ritual purity. However, if the Spirit of God is in a follower of Jesus, then that follower of Jesus will live a pure and holy life.
Galatians urges followers of Jesus not to return to the yoke of slavery, which is the Law of Moses. “For freedom, Christ set us free. Stand firm then and don’t submit again to a yoke of slavery” (Gal 5:1). For a follower of Jesus, returning to the pedagogue of the Law would be to take on an unnecessary yoke of slavery. Instead, the Holy Spirit connects us to God and leads us into holiness.
When a follower of Jesus looks at the Islamic system of ritual purity with its rules and regulations, they see two things. First, they see a system that is something like the Law of Moses. Submitting themselves to Islamic law would be to unnecessarily take on a yoke of slavery, from which Jesus gave us freedom. By nature of what Jesus did on the cross, followers of Jesus reject the yoke of slavery of Islamic law. Second, followers of Jesus know where to find the perfect Law. The Law of Moses is the ideal, God-given law. If there were ever a system of law that could lead us into purity, it would be the Law of Moses. However, it was ultimately unable to do so. Therefore, God sent Jesus into the world to die on the cross for our sins. God gave us His Spirit to dwell in us and guide us. In short, we have a better system. We have no need to return to any law to attain ritual purity.
Part 4: Baptism, a Pure Heart, the Holy Spirit, and Ritual Purity
In the New Testament, baptism is the only purity ritual for followers of Jesus. Comparing the Islamic systems of wudu and ghusl with baptism provides a stark contrast.
First, baptism is a rite that occurs only once in the believer’s life. In contrast, wudu and ghusl are continual rites that Muslims perform to attempt to attain and maintain ritual purity.
Additionally, there are no actions or sins that invalidate baptism. In contrast, wudu is broken by going to the bathroom or passing gas. This contrast demonstrates that the effects of baptism are far more potent than the effects of wudu. Baptism as a rite is so mighty that it permanently makes a follower of Jesus ritually pure.
In Urdu, Pak Ghusl is a term for baptism, which means “a holy bath.” The modified “Pak” is the word for holy or pure in Urdu. It distinguishes the Pak Ghusl from the ordinary ghusl that Muslims utilize. The Islamic ghusl claims to provide temporary purity, while the Pak Ghusl of Jesus cleanses a person for life.
I have often wondered how early Jewish followers of Jesus struggled over this transition. As they realized their freedom from the old purity laws and rituals, surely they were struck by the power and simplicity of the purity they had in Jesus. One of the strongest statements for Jewish followers of Jesus is in the book of Hebrews. Hebrews 8 describes the New Covenant that Jesus made by His blood, then Hebrews 9-10 describe His last and greatest sacrifice for our sins. The application of that passage begins is in Hebrews 10:19-22,
“Therefore, brothers and sisters, since we have boldness to enter the sanctuary through the blood of Jesus — he has inaugurated for us a new and living way through the curtain (that is, through his flesh ) — and since we have a great high priest over the house of God, let us draw near with a true heart in full assurance of faith, with our hearts sprinkled clean from an evil conscience and our bodies washed in pure water.”
According to this passage, our hearts have been sprinkled clean from an evil conscience. Ultimately, this is the primary difference between the Pak Ghusl and the ritual washings of Islam. The rituals of Islam merely clean the outside, while the work of Jesus cleanses our hearts.
Our Lord Jesus confronted the religious leaders of his day with this challenge, “Woe to you, scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites! You clean the outside of the cup and dish, but inside they are full of greed and self-indulgence. Blind Pharisee! First clean the inside of the cup, so that the outside of it may also become clean.”The point is that Jesus emphasized an inner purity that went beyond external rituals and washings. He taught us that we would automatically be externally clean if we were internally clean. These teachings on internal purity were common from Jesus (see Matthew 15:1-20). Jesus proclaimed, “Blessed are the pure in heart, for they will see God” (Matt 5:8). Purity of heart rather than external purity is the requirement to see God. Jesus accomplished the work of purifying our hearts by giving His life on the cross for our sins. Baptism (Pak Ghusl) is merely a symbol of that powerful work that Jesus accomplished for us.
The concept of a clean heart or conscience is common in the New Testament (1 Tim 1:5; 3:9; 2 Tim 1:3; 2:22; Heb 10:22; 1 Pet 1:22).[7] God changing the heart of his people was at the core of the Old Testament promises of what God would do for His people. For example, Ezekiel wrote, “I will give you a new heart and put a new spirit within you; I will remove your heart of stone and give you a heart of flesh” (Ezek 36:26). The purpose of God transforming the hearts of His people was to cause them to walk in obedience to Him. The change of heart accompanies God giving His Spirit to His people in these Old Testament texts.
The purifying power of the blood of Jesus is what prepared us for the Spirit of God. In the Old Testament, God had Moses prepare a tabernacle, which was the place for His presence to dwell (Exodus 25-40). When the people of God prepared the Tabernacle and all its components, God gave His people His regulations about sacrifice (Lev 1-7). Hebrews 9:22 summarizes those regulations well, “According to the law almost everything is purified with blood, and without the shedding of blood there is no forgiveness.” The Law of Moses provided two purposes for sacrifice. First, sacrifice provided for ritual purity. Likewise, we as followers of Jesus have been sprinkled clean by the blood of Jesus (1 Peter 1:2). Second, sacrifice provided for the forgiveness of sins. Throughout Leviticus 1-7, the person bringing the sacrifice would put his hands on the head of the animal as the priest sacrificed it for that person’s forgiveness. God gave this regulation in the Law of Moses to teach His people the depth of their sin and what was required for forgiveness. This system of sacrifice was a constant reminder to God’s people of their need to transfer their own guilt onto the animal as a sacrifice for their sins. The same picture is accurate of us in how Jesus took on our sins. As John the Baptist declared, “Behold, the lamb of God, who takes away the sins of the world!” (John 1:29)
In the Old Testament, the Tabernacle was where God would dwell among His people. So, they performed many sacrifices to purify the Tabernacle and priesthood in Leviticus 8-9. Leviticus 9:24 shares how this time of worship concluded. “Fire came from the Lord and consumed the burnt offering and the fat portions on the altar. And when all the people saw it, they shouted and fell facedown.” This verse describes God coming to dwell in the Tabernacle. It was necessary to make the Tabernacle holy through these sacrifices so that the presence of God could live there.
Of course, there is a strong New Testament parallel. Today, followers of Jesus are called the temple of the Holy Spirit (1 Cor 3:16; 6:19; 2 Cor 6:16; Eph 2:21).[8] God poured His Holy Spirit on His people only after Jesus purified us by His blood. The old system of the Law of Moses could never sufficiently purify our hearts to make us ready for the Holy Spirit to dwell inside of us. But now, we have been prepared by the powerful work of Jesus on the cross.
When we compare the New Testament system of purity and what Jesus did with the Islamic systems of wudu and ghusl, the Islamic systems are found to be lacking. There is great freedom in Jesus in which we are freed from constant washings and rituals to simply be with God by the indwelling power of His Spirit. God has given us this great gospel to share with our Muslim friends! The depths of these things can be challenging to explain initially. Still, the power of our freedom from constant purity rituals will be apparent to our Muslim friends. Because of our lack of purity rituals, their primary concern might be that we do not care about purity and holiness.
In the same way that God freed the Jewish people from the Law of Moses through Jesus, God desires to free our Muslim neighbors from the burden of sharia law to know and obey Him.
PART 5: SHARING THE GOSPEL AND RITUAL PURITY
The previous sections provide theological foundations, these final two sections are practical guidance about how to utilize these theological truths in evangelism and discipleship. There are three ways that this teaching should influence our evangelism.
First, frame sin issues in terms of purity rather than only sin when sharing the gospel with Muslims.When we seek to argue about sin and our need for forgiveness, Muslims often say God is merciful and forgiving. They say that we simply need to ask for forgiveness and that no sacrifice is needed. Many have found themselves deep in theological arguments with Muslims about the necessity of substitutionary atonement. Some followers of Jesus have been frustrated that their Muslim friends do not see the depths of their sin.
On the other hand, some Muslims have mocked our beliefs on substitutionary atonement. They think it is impossible that Jesus could die for the sins of the world.
Remember that God gave His people the picture of substitutionary atonement for over a thousand years. Under the Law of Moses, they brought a sacrificial animal whenever a person sinned. The sinner put their hands on the head of the animal and watched the priest make the sacrifice. God discipled His people to see and understand substitutionary atonement.
I have found far less argument when I frame our need as purity rather than forgiveness. Every day, Muslims seek purity. If they are religious, they do a hundred small things every day to avoid becoming ritually impure or to become ritually pure. If they are more secular, half of their complaints are all the rituals related to purity!
I simply share something like this. “The God who made this world and all things in it is holy. However, when we look at humanity around us, everyone is impure. Can those who are impure go into the presence of God? It can never be. Every day, people work hard to become pure. But the problem is that we are not pure within. Jesus taught, “Blessed are the pure in heart, for they will see God.” The only way to see God is to have a pure heart! All the washing and cleaning rituals can clean our outside, but they can never clean our hearts.”
It is my experience that when I frame our sin problem in this way that Muslims understand much more and are more willing and open to see the problem in their own life.
Second, frame the gospel in heart issues rather than external purity. In the example above, I already shared an example of how I begin to speak to heart issues. Many Muslims are experts at being like Pharisees and showing their religious deeds to others. We need to learn how to talk to their hearts. I love attacking hypocrisy when I have gospel conversations with Muslims because it helps me get to heart issues. One way to define hypocrisy is simply being better at showing others you are religious or spiritual than you are in private.
Try to describe your relationship with Jesus and how you experience Him to your Muslim friend. Model prayer in front of them as a picture of your relationship with God. For many Muslims, our relational style of worship to God is powerful. Share about specific ways that Jesus has transformed your character or comforted you. Help your Muslim friend see the reality of your faith. Throughout all of this, I love discussing Matthew 5:8 and Matthew 23:25-26. These two passages are favorites for getting to heart issues.
“Blessed are the pure in heart for they will see God.” Matthew 5:8
“Woe to you, scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites! You clean the outside of the cup and dish, but inside they are full of greed and self-indulgence. Blind Pharisee! First clean the inside of the cup, so that the outside of it may also become clean.” Matthew 23:25-26
Third, since we do not have a system of laws, some Muslims are very confused about what followers of Jesus are supposed to do. Many Muslims are very proud of their elaborate systems of rules and regulations. They only know a fraction of those rules and regulations, but they are proud that they are there. In contrast, Muslims see Christians as antinomians (those without laws) who commit every sin they want. In their minds, Christians eat pork, drink alcohol, and have sex with many people. Most Muslims have heard that Hollywood movies exemplify the lifestyle of Western Christianity. These rumors are one reason that I tend to use the term “followers of Jesus” rather than “Christians” because we can define what a follower of Jesus is.
My point is that we must describe to Muslims what it means as followers of Jesus to obey Jesus and walk by the Spirit. They appreciate hearing from us that we pursue lifestyles of holiness and shun sin. But since our walk with Jesus is not simply a list of dos and don’ts, they lack handles about what it looks like to follow Him. New Muslim-background believers often struggle significantly with sin issues as they work out the kinks of the new freedom they have in Jesus. The point is that Muslims who hear the gospel need precise guidance on what it would look like to follow Jesus. I often used the Seven Commands of Christ[9] to describe a basic picture of what it means to follow Jesus.
PART 6: THE SERMON ON THE MOUNT AND RITUAL PURITY (THE SECOND MOST PRACTICAL SECTION)
Many Muslims love the Sermon on the Mount in Matthew 5-7. The reason is that Jesus speaks directly to these heart issues and gives the most potent challenge against hypocrisy that has perhaps ever been given. Jesus discusses problems in terms of purity and repeatedly demonstrates our need for internal transformation rather than merely external religion. Therefore, the Sermon on the Mount speaks to the Muslim’s desire for purity.
When Muslims read the Sermon on the Mount, I think that many of them long for a religious experience that is more like what Jesus teaches in that sermon. It is about holiness, but it is also about living with God as a whole person.
At the same time, they read their religious leaders into the place of the Pharisees. Like the Pharisees, many Muslim religious leaders focus on gaining knowledge and appearing religious externally. Like the Pharisees, these Muslim religious leaders are expert hypocrites who focus on external obedience. At the same time, their hearts are full of impurity. It is informative that both Pharisaical Judaism and Sharia Islam tend to develop hypocritical religious leaders. Religious systems that focus on external obedience rather than internal transformation have that effect. Before we become boastful against our Muslim neighbors in this regard, we should consider how many Christian leaders are likewise hypocritical. It could be that many Christians have learned to focus on external obedience rather than internal transformation despite Jesus constantly teaching against that kind of system.
Therefore, I highly recommend that Muslim-focused workers regularly study the Sermon on the Mount and incorporate it heavily into their evangelism and discipleship practices. Moreover, the Muslim-focused worker must not simply teach the Sermon on the Mount, but they must live it. Muslims are trapped in a system in which they are surrounded by religious hypocrisy. As followers of Jesus, we should provide something better. Read, pray, and weep through the Sermon on the Mount until God transforms your life to become like it. “Blessed are those who hunger and thirst for righteousness, for they will be filled” (Matt 5:6). My point is, be the person who hungers and thirsts for righteousness.
As Jesus said, “Enter through the narrow gate. For the gate is wide and the road broad that leads to destruction, and there are many who go through it. How narrow is the gate and difficult the road that leads to life, and few find it.” Matthew 7:13-14
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[1] A fatwa is a ruling on a religious matter by a qualified Islamic leader. A person writes to a religious leader to ask for guidance on a particular issue. The religious leader gives an official and binding decree called a fatwa.
[2] In this man’s case, the religious leader declared a medical exemption. The fatwa decreed for this man that passing gas did not make him ritually impure.
[3] Allamah Shibli Nu’ Mani, Imam Abu Hanifa: Life and Work. Idara Implex, 2015 Edition, 43. This work was originally written in the early 1900s.
[4] This list is not exhaustive but is instead representative of the types of laws in the Law of Moses about ritual purity.
[5] Followers of Jesus read the Law of Moses (Taurat Sharif), the Psalms of David (Zabur Sharif), and the New Testament (Injeel Sharif). The fact that followers of Jesus can read these books together and include all three in the Bible is a strong testimony that these three books correlate with one another. However, the Qur’an is generally not included with the other three. The three books give a powerful and united witness against the one.
[6] For more information, see Jo-Ann Shelton, As the Romans Did: A Sourcebook in Roman Social History. Second Edition (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 33-34.
[7] The concept of a pure heart is also in the Old Testament. For example, Psalm 24:3-4a said, “Who may ascend the mountain of the Lord? Who may stand in his holy place? The one who has clean hands and a pure heart.” In this psalm, both internal and external holiness are required to go into the presence of God.
[8] My reading of these texts is that the corporate body of followers of Jesus is the temple of the Holy Spirit rather than the ordinary believer. In that context, Ephesians 5:18-21 is a powerful picture of how the corporate body of Jesus can be filled with the Spirit together.
[9] If you do not know the Seven Commands of Christ, they are a common discipleship tool that was developed by George Patterson in Latin America that are now being used globally. A simple Google search will provide many examples of how they are being used.
This blog post is the ninth in a series on South Asian folk Islam and its rituals. Click here to go to the first of these articles. Understanding the rituals of Folk Islam provides insight into the beliefs and practices of folk Muslims. This understanding helps us to make disciples of folk Muslims.
A devotional imagine in honor of the Sufi mystic Kwaja Gharib Nawaz. In the upper right corner, Kwaja Gharib Nawaz is written. Kwaja Gharib Nawaz is one title of the famous Kwaja Moiunuddin Chishti (d. 1236). He is considered the most famous of the Sufis of South Asia, Many venerate him at his tomb in Ajmer, Rajasthan in India.
I had a wild experience with Islamic devotional images when a Muslim family decided to follow Jesus. Before taking baptism, they asked for help in removing a room full of Islamic idols and devotional images. Most prominent was a miniature dargah. This family had received a sacred object from a dargah (read here about dargahs), brought it home, and built a miniature dargah to house that item. They believed the dargah was a conduit of the barkat of the dargah from which they had brought the sacred object. Now, they were afraid to remove the dargah for fear of the spirits associated with it. Despite their fear, they arranged for the shrine to be demolished and removed. The images and relics were then burned. To these new believers, their continued health demonstrated Jesus’ authority over the shrine’s spirits.
Devotional images generally represent Sufi saints, Shia leaders, or relics of Muhammad. Pilgrims purchase devotional images during pilgrimages to dargahs or other religious sites. They hope that some of the spiritual power or blessing from the dargah or pir persists in the devotional image. In the mind of many folk Muslims, barkat (Urdu for blessing; baraka in Arabic) exists as a form of impersonal spiritual power that dwells in people and objects. Through their connection with Allah, pirs become conduits of this barkat. Certain holy places, especially dargahs, are places imbued with great barkat. The accumulation of barkat provides many practical blessings. An individual with a significant amount of barkat might have the power to heal the sick or divine the future. Lesser amounts of barkat still provide spiritual protection from demons, jinn, and the evil eye. The more barkat an individual has, the more powerful their prayers.
Many relics in South Asian Islam are items imbued with great barkat. For example, in various places across South Asia are the hairs of Muhammad. For instance, Jama Masjid in Old Delhi is said to have some of Muhammad’s beard hairs. In Srinagar, India, a dargah called Hazratbal (i.e., “Honored Hair ” houses more hairs of Muhammad. Many folk Muslims understand that these kinds of relics contain barkat. Therefore, they go to these places seeking some of this spiritual power to rub off on them. At Hazratbal, when they bring out the relic containing Muhammad’s hairs, those present often prostrate themselves in honor of the prophet. Those devotees undoubtedly hope to gain some barkat from Muhammad through his beard hairs.
Devotional images are more affordable and available than relics. It is common to have a smaller inset image of the Kaaba in Mecca in devotional images. Among both Deobandi and Barelvi Muslims, pictures depicting the Qur’an, the Kaaba, and calligraphy of verses of the Qur’an in Arabic are ordinary. Through devotional images, Sunni and Shia folk Muslims can easily be identified. Shia folk Muslims generally include images of saints riding on white horses, while Sunni images do not have white horses. The variety of devotional images in Islam is a testimony to the range of opinions among South Asian Muslims about who or what is the most significant source of barkat.
One Christian response to the Muslim concept of barkat is to demonstrate what true blessing is from Scripture. One of the most powerful sections of Scripture to do this are the Beatitudes of Matthew 5. “Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of God… Blessed are those who hunger and thirst for righteousness, for they will be satisfied.” These verses meet many Muslims at a felt need for blessing and then redirect them from their folk beliefs about barkat to a discussion about finding true blessing in the Lord Jesus.
This blog post is the eighth in a series on South Asian folk Islam and its rituals. Click here to go to the first of these articles. Understanding the rituals of Folk Islam provides insight into the beliefs and practices of folk Muslims. This understanding helps us to make disciples of folk Muslims.
The folk Islamic worldview focuses on spiritual powers that are always present around us. In the view of folk Muslims, some of the most common opposing spiritual forces are jinn, demons, and the evil eye. Jinn and demons are similar but distinct. Demons (usually called Shaytan or Iblis in Urdu) are evil and more powerful than jinn. In contrast, jinn function as troublemakers who cause misfortune and trouble. The English word “genie” derives from the Arabic root jinn. Muslims often attribute tripping or other accidents to jinn. Another spiritual force is the evil eye.
The fear of the evil eye (Urdu nazr lagna) is that an individual can voluntarily or involuntarily harm another person, animal, or property by envying or praising it. The evil eye is a curse that can lead to sickness, misfortune, or any number of issues. Fear of the evil eye motivates several practices. For example, financial gifts at weddings contain an “extra rupee,” i.e., a thousand rupees become a thousand and one rupees. The purpose is to make the present appear less attractive and thus not attract envy. Muslims place Masha Allah (Arabic for “God willed it”) bumper stickers on their cars or signage on their homes to avoid the evil eye. When someone compliments the child of folk Muslims without saying Masha Allah, parents often respond with alarm because of fear of the evil eye. Drivers tie shoes or pieces of black cloth to new trucks or cars to avoid the evil eye. Pregnant mothers and newborn children are considered especially at risk of the evil eye. Fear of the evil eye is why pregnant women generally stay at home in South Asia. Many parents will apply makeup birthmarks to their newborns to avoid envy and, hence the evil eye.
One common practice in North India is the protection of newborns and children through amulets, called tawiz, made by local Muslim leaders (click here to read about tawiz). Tawiz contain Qur’anic verses or prayers used for protection or blessing. Here is an example of an incantation used by a Muslim leader to bless a tawiz to protect newborns from the evil eye:
“Write the following Ta’awwuz on a piece of paper or linen and let the baby wear it:
I seek the protection of Allah’s perfect words against the mischief of every Shaytaan [“evil spirit”] and venomous creature and from the mischief of every evil eye which causes harm.”
As mentioned, another standard protection against the evil eye is the Arabic phrase Masha Allah. It is common to see this phrase on buildings, homes, and other possessions throughout the Muslim world. The expression accompanies praise. For example, if I say to my friend, “You have a beautiful home.” He will often respond, “Masha Allah.” Some do this purely to show reverence to God and acknowledge Him as the giver of their possessions. However, this phrase is often invoked as protection against the evil eye on their home. If the evil eye is attached to their home, all kinds of curses, diseases, and difficulties might come with it.
When I was a college student, I spent a summer in Turkey. Everyone wore at least one turquoise eye medallion called a nazar as a ward against the evil eye in Turkey. These amulets are used in South Asia but seem less common than in the Turkish world. Often, I would find a new Turkish friend looking at me as if searching for something on my body. Then they would ask, “where is your nazar?” I would tell them that I did not have one. Quickly, my new friend would pull out an extra one and offer it to me. I would respond that I did not need this amulet. At this point, my friend would be almost frustrated with me that I did not understand the importance of protection from the evil eye.
From this point, I would begin to explain to them the power of Christ in me because of the gospel. Therefore, I would explain, “I do not need a nazar because Jesus is more powerful than both the nazar and the evil eye.” In ministry to folk Muslims, we can use the empowering presence of Jesus and the Holy Spirit in our lives to explain the gospel. In Scripture, one great verse about this is James 4:7, “Therefore, submit to God. Resist the devil, and he will flee from you.” We can depend on Jesus as our rock and protector against any evil spiritual force. Believers from Muslim folk backgrounds need to know that if we submit to God and abide in Him, then the power of Christ in us is enough to resist the devil. Jesus is enough to protect us from any spiritual forces around us.
Another favorite verse that I have on this issue is “the one who is in you is greater than the one who his in the world” (1 John 4:4). The Holy Spirit as God’s presence inside of us is powerful. Because God is with us, we have no need to fear any evil spirit or power or curse. When we stand in this confidence before our folk Muslim friends, we often gain opportunity to proclaim the gospel. If you need help in what to share with your Muslim friend, click here for a training on how to share Jesus with your Muslim friend.
I once attended a Holy Spirit revival in South Asia. The prosperity gospel was the focus of that meeting. The teacher kept saying, “Give your best seed to God, and He will give you the desires of your heart!” By “best seed,” he meant that we should give him lots of money. He said things like, “If you need a house, go and clean out your bank account. Give it to God! Then God will give you a house.” The teaching often broke for Holy Spirit times. The teacher would command the Spirit to come as a fire, lay hands on people, or speak a prophecy. Over 1,000 followers of Jesus gathered and made a great deal of noise as they writhed, fell down, and did all sorts of things, purportedly under the influence of the Holy Spirit. It was by far the most charismatic meeting I have ever witnessed in my life. Probably 50 pastors from our city participated in all of these things.
Later, many of those pastors came to me and asked, “Do you think that the things in that meeting were from the Holy Spirit or not?” I loved it when these pastors came and asked this question. It gave an excellent opportunity to talk to them about what the Bible teaches about the Holy Spirit.
When they asked, I responded by asking, “What do you think? What does the Bible say about the Holy Spirit?” I was genuinely surprised when most of these pastors confessed that they did not really know what the Bible teaches about the Holy Spirit. So, we would open up the Scripture and talk about what the Holy Spirit does. Out of those discussions, I developed this teaching that I call the Seven Works of the Holy Spirit. I often teach believers this tool to help them understand the Holy Spirit. Muslim-background believers have found this teaching informative as they interact with local Christians.
#1 The Holy Spirit Transforms our Lives
“But the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness, and self-control. The law is not against such things.” Galatians 5:22-23
Galatians 5:16-25 teaches us that if we walk by the Spirit, we will be transformed by His power. First, “the works of the flesh” will diminish in our lives. These are things like sexual immorality, moral impurity, envy, and drunkenness (Gal 5:19-21). Second, the fruit of the Spirit will automatically emerge. Therefore, when the Holy Spirit works in our lives, our character changes. We are filled with love, joy, peace, and patience. Another way to say this is that the power of the Holy Spirit sanctifies us to make us more and more holy. If you claim to walk by the Spirit but are not characterized by the fruit of the Spirit, ask the Lord to transform your life. Jesus told His disciples to pray, saying “How much more will the Heavenly Father give the Holy Spirit to those who ask Him?” (Luke 11:13) In the same way, we should ask the Father to transform our lives and character by His Spirit.
#2 The Holy Spirit Convicts Us of Sin
“Nevertheless, I am telling you the truth. It is for your benefit that I go away, because if I don’t go away the Counselor will not come to you. If I go, I will send him to you. When he comes, he will convict the world about sin, righteousness, and judgment: About sin, because they do not believe in me; about righteousness, because I am going to the Father and you will no longer see me; and about judgment, because the ruler of this world has been judged.” John 16:7-11
If we have been saved and given the gift of the Spirit, we cannot be comfortable with sin in our lives. The Spirit will constantly convict our hearts. Some actively ignore the Spirit until that conviction begins to fade. But that is a perilous place to be! If we suppress the work of the Spirit in our lives until He no longer convicts our hearts of our sin, it means that we have grown to be quite far from God. Suppose the Spirit is genuinely moving in our lives. In that case, we are often led to repentance, turning from our sin to walk more closely with our heavenly Father. The convicting power of the Spirit is a gift from God to help us from wandering from our heavenly Father. We should be holy as the Lord our God is holy.
#3 The Holy Spirit Guides Us to the Truth
“I have spoken these things to you while I remain with you. But the Counselor, the Holy Spirit, whom the Father will send in my name, will teach you all things and remind you of everything I have told you.” John 14:25-26
Jesus promised that the Holy Spirit would remind us of the teachings of Jesus. In the same teaching, Jesus said, “I still have many things to tell you, but you can’t bear them now. When the Spirit of truth comes, He will guide you into all the truth” (John 16:12-13a). If the Holy Spirit is truly working in your life, you will be driven to study the Scriptures. The Spirit will reveal His Word to us. As a result, we naturally move away from wrong beliefs to having better and better theology because of the power of the Spirit.
#4 The Holy Spirit Empowers us to Proclaim Christ
“When they had prayed, the place where they were assembled was shaken, and they were all filled with the Holy Spirit and began to speak the word of God boldly.” Acts 4:31
In the book of Acts, the Spirit constantly empowered God’s people to proclaim the gospel. In Acts 2:4, the Spirit fell, and 120 followers of Jesus began to proclaim “the magnificent acts of God” in the languages of all the pilgrims to Jerusalem (Acts 2:5-11). Then Peter stood up, empowered by the Spirit, and preached the gospel so powerfully that 3,000 took baptism (Acts 2:14-41)! In Acts 4:8, Peter and John were filled with the Spirit while on trial (as Jesus promised in Matthew 10:19). The Spirit gave Peter and John bold words to proclaim to the religious leaders of Jerusalem. After they were released, a group of believers prayed again until they were filled with the Spirit. The result was that they “began to speak the word of God boldly” (Acts 4:31). If you are filled with the Spirit, you will proclaim the gospel. The Holy Spirit guides us to proclaim the life-saving message of the gospel!
#5 The Holy Spirit Gives Us Spiritual Gifts
“Now there are different gifts, but the same Spirit. There are different ministries, but the same Lord. And there are different activities, but the same God works all of them in each person. A manifestation of the Spirit is given to each person for the common good: to one is given a message of wisdom through the Spirit, to another, a message of knowledge by the same Spirit, to another, faith by the same Spirit, to another, gifts of healing by the one Spirit, to another, the performing of miracles, to another, prophecy, to another, distinguishing between spirits, to another, different kinds of tongues, to another, interpretation of tongues. One and the same Spirit is active in all these, distributing to each person as he wills.” 1 Corinthians 12:4-11
The Holy Spirit gives gifts to every believer. The purpose of these gifts is to serve the body and advance the gospel. There are two opposite errors that people make regarding spiritual gifts. Some emphasize spiritual gifts too much. When we listen to these individuals, it is as if the only purpose of the Holy Spirit is to give us these gifts. They deemphasize everything else the Spirit does to emphasize this one part. On the other side, some devalue spiritual gifts, usually in response to those who overemphasize them! We should aim somewhere between these two extremes by valuing spiritual gifts but not overly emphasizing them.
#6 The Holy Spirit Empowers Us to Worship
“And don’t get drunk with wine, which leads to reckless living, but be filled by the Spirit: speaking to one another in psalms, hymns, and spiritual songs, singing and making music with your heart to the Lord, giving thanks always for everything to God the Father in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ, submitting to one another in the fear of Christ.” Ephesians 5:18-21
The Greek structure of Ephesians 5:18-21 is interesting. The central command is “be filled by the Spirit.” This command is modified by five participles, “speaking to one another,” “singing and making music,” “giving thanks always,” and “submitting to one another.” These five participles are either (1) how we become filled with the Spirit or (2) what happens when we are filled by the Spirit. In fact, I believe it is both of these. These five participles all refer to actions that occur in corporate worship at church. If you find yourself far from the Spirit, repent of your sins (you cannot be filled with the Spirit if you are filled with sin!) and join in other believers in worship and body life. As you do, you put yourself in a position to be filled with the Spirit. At the same time, when you are filled with the Spirit, you automatically speak to others in psalms, hymns, and spiritual songs while giving thanks to God! In reality, this passage describes the ideal working of the Holy Spirit in the corporate body. These actions are not done individually but are done together as a church. The Holy Spirit fills his people as we worship together.
#7 The Holy Spirit Leads Us
“They went through the region of Phrygia and Galatia; they had been forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia. When they came to Mysia, they tried to go into Bithynia, but the Spirit of Jesus did not allow them. Passing by Mysia they went down to Troas. During the night Paul had a vision in which a Macedonian man was standing and pleading with him, “Cross over to Macedonia and help us!” After he had seen the vision, we immediately made efforts to set out for Macedonia, concluding that God had called us to preach the gospel to them.” Acts 16:6-10
The Holy Spirit often spoke to and directed His people in the New Testament. In Matthew 4:1, our Lord Jesus was “led up by the Spirit into the wilderness to be tempted by the devil.” in Acts 16, Paul and Barnabas were clearly led by the Spirit to go to Macedonia when they had no intention of going there. The point is that God often leads His people by His Spirit. We should be open to the gentle nudges and direction of the Spirit.
After sharing these seven works of the Holy Spirit with the pastors who attended the Holy Spirit meeting, I would ask, “You have seen what the Bible teaches about the Holy Spirit. Now I want to ask you a question. Did you see evidence of these works of the Spirit in the lives of those believers after the meeting?” I had this conversation with more than a dozen pastors. Every pastor simply confessed, “No.”
I feel that a point of clarity is necessary here. We should not necessarily expect that all seven of these works of the Spirit must be observed to say that something was from the Spirit. In fact, it is common to see one or two of these works present when the Spirit moves in an individual’s life. However, absence of all of these works of the Spirit should cause doubt of whether something was genuinely from the Spirit.
The next question each pastor asked was, “What does the Bible say about how to be filled with the Holy Spirit?”This is a question of extreme importance in the Christian life. Perhaps I will write a future blog on how I answer that question.
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Here are a few extra notes on the Greek text of Ephesians 5:18-21. In Greek, these five participles can either be participles of means or participles of result. They are present active participles modifying an imperative. See Daniel B. Wallace, Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics: An Exegetical Syntax of the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996), 639. Footnote: In Greek, the command “be filled by the Spirit” is a plural command, implying that it is not accomplished individually. Additionally, all five of the participles are plural, indicating the same. Last, the text is clear, even in English, that these are not individualistic actions. Speaking is done “to one another.” Believers also submit “to one another.” In Ephesians 5:18-21, being filled with the Spirit is a corporate activity.
A picture of the Qur’an as a book of power. Images like this are common throughout South Asia, and the Muslim world.
This blog post is the sixth in a series on South Asian folk Islam and its rituals. Click here to go to the first of these articles. Understanding the rituals of Folk Islam provides insight into the beliefs and practices of folk Muslims.
Understanding folk Muslim rituals help us to understand the worldview of ordinary Muslims in South Asia. Understanding the worldview of ordinary Muslims helps us more effectively make disciples of folk Muslims. However, not all folk Muslims adhere to the same folk rituals. Therefore, these readings on folk Islamic rituals should act as a guide to explore folk Islam rather than as concrete rules for folk Islam. In South Asia, it is common for Muslims to use the Qur’an as a book of mystical power to meet various needs. For example, consider this suggested use of the Qur’an:
“If a person is truly desirous of seeing Rasoolullah [Arabic for “the apostle of Allah,” i.e., Muhammad] in the dream he should do the following: he should bath on the eve of Jumu’ah (i.e., the night between Thursday and Friday). He should don clean clothes and apply itar [“perfume”]. After Esha [“night prayer”], he should offer 2 rak’aat nafl salaah [i.e. pray two rounds of Muslim ritual prayer]. Thereafter, he should read Soorah Kauthar 1,000 times [Surah 108 in the Qur’an], salwaat upon Rasoolullah 100 times [a ritual prayer for Muhammad and his family]. Insha-Allah [Arabic “if Allah wills”] the reader will see him soon.”[1]
Surah Kauthar is very short, but 1,000 recitations would likely take a few hours. This brief ritual also demonstrates how important it is for many Muslims to have a spiritual experience of Muhammad. It is also reminiscent of Matthew 6:7, when Jesus said, “When you pray, don’t babble like the Gentiles, since they imagine they’ll be heard for their many words. Don’t be like them, because your Father knows the things you need before you ask him.”
Here is another example of a use of the Qur’an in folk Islam:
“It is reported from Rasoolullah that everything has a heart. And the heart of the Holy Qur’an is Yaseen [Surah 36]. The Ulama [council of Muslim religious leaders] say that whoever reads Yaseen in the morning and evening, Allah will have 80 of his needs fulfilled. The least being poverty.
To fulfill a specific need, recite Soorah Yaseen after Jumu’ah Salaah [Friday prayers in mosque], facing the qiblah [direction of prayer towards Mecca] in the following manner:
After the first mubeen [an Arabic word that occurs seven times in Surah 36], recite Soorah Ikhlas [Surah 112] thrice.
After the second mubeen, recite Soorah Kauthar [Surah 108] thrice.
After the third mubeen, recite Soorah Inshiraah [Surah 94] thrice.
After the fourth mubeen, recite Soorah Faatihah [Surah 1] thrice.
After the fifth mubeen, recite the following aayah [“verse”] thrice: Allah is kind upon His servants. He grants rizq [“daily wage”] to whomever He wills. And He is the Strong, the Mighty.
After the sixth mubeen, recite Durood [a prayer for blessing on Muhammad] thrice.
After the seventh mubeen, recite the following du’aa [“prayer”] thrice: O Allah, expand and increase for me my sustenance to such an extent that I do not become dependent on any of Your creations.
This ritual promises fulfillment of 80 of the needs of the person praying, including solving poverty. Notice that there is no focus on understanding the Qur’an in this ritual. Instead, the Qur’an is a mystical book in which there is blessing and power. This prayer is essentially prosperity Islam. If a Muslim has any specific need, this is a ritual of obtaining that need. This ritual has nothing to do with a relationship with God but is like a magic spell.
Many folk Muslims have a very different understanding of the nature and purpose of Scripture than Christians hold. For example, many Muslims have learned to pronounce the Qur’an in Arabic but do not understand the meaning in Arabic. The purpose of reading the Qur’an in Arabic is two-fold. One goal is to earn good works for the day of judgment. The other is to be able to use the Qur’an as a book of mystical power. Folk Muslims generally believe that the mystical power of the Qur’an does not work in translations. Therefore, many Muslims emphasize reciting the Qur’an in Arabic over understanding it in their language. Therefore, when folk Muslims begin to explore the Bible, it is a strange experience to read a holy book in a language that they can understand.
One of the most common types of devotional images are pictures of the Qur’an where it appears that power is emanating from the book. It is common to see these devotional pictures in Muslim homes and shops throughout South Asia.
Here is an example of a picture of the Qur’an as a book of mystical power.
At this point, it is helpful to note that different groups of Muslims use the same forms with different meanings. For example, one Muslim understands the Qur’an to be the source of truth from Allah, while another uses the Qur’an most as a magic book to overcome spiritual forces in their life. Many Muslims simultaneously use the Qur’an in both of these ways. In the chart below, Bill Musk compares the meaning of various forms in official versus popular Islam.[3] Musk uses the term official similar to how I use the term orthodox and popular how I use folk.
Function, Form, and Meaning in Official and Popular Islam. Scan from Bill Musk, The Unseen Face of Islam: Sharing the Gospel with Ordinary Muslims at Street Level (Oxford: Monarch Books, 2003), 201.
Studying this chart can provide a significant understanding of the worldview of folk Muslims in South Asia. For example, in orthodox Islam, reciting the confession (i.e., the Shahadah, “there is no God but Allah and Muhammad is his prophet”) proves that someone is a Muslim. However, in folk Islam, the Shahadah is recited as a ward against evil spirits and powers.
In the same way, Musk described the orthodox view of the Qur’an as “encoding of God’s self-revelation.” Orthodox Muslims believe that reading and understanding the Qur’an gives an understanding of what Allah chose to reveal to His people. Evangelical Christians approach the Bible in a similar manner. However, for folk Muslims, Musk lists bibliomancy and bibliolatry as the uses of the Qur’an. Bibliomancy is what is described in this lesson, using the Qur’an as a magic book. Bibliolatry is the act of setting up the Qur’an as a sort of idol for veneration. Because of the view that the Qur’an holds so much spiritual power, bibliolatry is common among folk Muslims. Bibliolatry is expressed by the Islamic use of images of the Qur’an.
At this point, one barrier to making disciples of South Asian folk Muslims is apparent. As folk Muslims come to Christ, we have to teach them to approach the Bible in a very different way than they have learned to approach the Qur’an. As many folk Muslims come to Christ, it is a strange experience for them that we expect them to read and understand the Bible for knowledge about God’s will. Many folk Muslims are illiterate or functionally illiterate, so a general lack of education complicates the issue. In the face of these issues, great effort and time is required to help followers of Jesus from folk Muslim backgrounds become biblically literate.
If you have found this page and you are a Muslim, asalamu alykum! We are happy you are here. The page you have found is for non-Muslims seeking to understand your religion and culture. In the same way, I would like to invite you to learn about Hazrat Isa al-Masih. Please click here to go to a blog post that will share what the amazing Injeel Sharif teaches about Him! https://nocousinsleft.com/2024/11/25/the-message-of-hazrat-isa-al-masih/
This blog post is the sixth in a series on South Asian folk Islam and its rituals. Click here to go to the first of these articles. Understanding the rituals of Folk Islam provides insight into the beliefs and practices of folk Muslims.
In the previous lesson, we began to look at the folk Muslim’s perception of the spiritual realm of curses, magic, and spiritual beings. One way that folk Muslims seek to interact with this spiritual realm is through protective amulets called tawiz. Another common practice is calledzikr (Arabic dhikr), which often uses the 99 names of Allah.
The 99 Names of Allah with English transliteration and meaning. Posters like this are common in South Asia.
Zikr is the Urdu word to remember (zikr karna has the same meaning as the Hindi yaad karna). Therefore, zikr is the act of remembering Allah. Almost every Sufi sect has a style of zikr; some of these practices are relatively tame, while others are quite ecstatic. Most Sufis use zikr as a practice to focus their attention entirely on Allah as practice for seeking spiritual union with him. Here is one example of zikr from the writings of a Sufi who came to Christ and became a Methodist bishop in Lucknow, India:
“We enter a dimly-lighted room where a number of men are gathered. As we do so a signal is given by a man who appears to be the leader of the assembly and the doors are shut. There is a hush as twelve men form into two parallel lines in the center of the room. The glimmer of a solitary hurricane lamp falls on the dark faces in which only eyes seem to live. The rest of us fall back to the sides of the room. The dhikr is about to begin. With a startling clap of the hands the leader starts swaying from right to left. Very slowly he begins, and the men fall into the rhythm of his swaying. Every time they sway to the left, they call “Hu!” in chorus. “Hu… Hu… Hu…” So the monotonous chant proceeds with at first hardly and perceptible increase in tempo. But gradually the movement of their bodies becomes more rapid and the sound of “Hu! Hu! Hu!” comes faster and faster with crescendo corresponding with the quicker time. At last the excitement becomes so intense that a man there, and a boy here, slip to their knees, still swaying in unison with the others till finally they fall and collapse on the floor. One man goes forward and looks at the faces of these two and leaves them where they lie. Thus course after course of this chanting and swaying beginning from the slower and proceeding to the wild orgy of motion and shouting, proceeds according to the leader’s direction, who brings the whole course to its end by a loud shout of “Hu!” and a wild jerk to the left. Then dead silence prevails, succeeded by the low undertone of prayer in which all who have not fallen unconscious join.”[1]
Probably the most common form of zikr in South Asia is the use of prayer beads called tasbih. Some use the tasbih to recite simple phrases like, “there is no God but Allah” (Arabic la ilaha illa llah) repeatedly. For example, if someone wanted to say this phrase a thousand times, they use the tasbih beads to count. Others use the tasbih to recite the 99 names of Allah. Muslims sometimes walk at the park, reciting their prayer beads. Older men sit and recite the names of Allah. A tasbih has 33 beads (some have 99 beads); thus, three cycles are necessary to repeat these 99 names of Allah. In folk Islam, zikr of Allah’s 99 names is a form of obtaining blessing and protection. For example, one little booklet that is commonly available in India lists the particular spiritual benefits of reciting different names of Allah in this manner. For example,
Prayer booklets like this are available to purchase throughout South Asia.
Al Maliku (The Soverign). A person will become self-sufficient and independent if he reads it excessively daily after Zawaal [mid-day prayers].
Al Qud-doosu (Free from all Blemishes). If recited excessively, Allah will cure the reciter from all spiritual sicknesses.
As Salaamu (The Giver of Peace…). Allah will protect one from all calamities if the Beautiful Name of Allah is read excessively. If recited 115 times and blown on a sick person, Allah Ta’ala will restore his health_Insha-Allah [Arabic “If Allah wills it”].
Al-Mu’minu (The Giver of Peace). Whoever says this Beautiful Name of Allah 630 times in times of fear, Allah will protect him from all calamities_Insha-Allah. If anyone writes in (on paper or by engraving it on a silver ring) and keeps it on him (as ta’weez), his physical and spiritual safety will remain the responsibility of Allah.[2]
In summary, zikr is a Sufi and folk Islamic practice of remembering Allah. Zikr promotes spiritual union with Allah. As a folk practice, zikr overcomes sickness and gives protection or other blessings. Often, these two goals seem to merge in the lives of Muslims. It is common for Muslims to spend more time in zikr as they increase in age. In South Asia, as people pass into retirement age, this is a time to focus on spirituality. Like tawiz (amulets that contain verses from the Qur’an or names of Allah), zikr is a means for interacting with the spiritual realm that is present around the folk Muslim.
These acts reveal that there is a fear-power orientation to the worldviews of folk Muslims in South Asia. Fear-power orientation means that folk Muslims are afraid of spiritual forces that might affect them negatively and are seeking spiritual power to overcome those spiritual forces. In the face of this fear, Scripture tells followers of Jesus, “the one who is in you is greater than the one who is in the world” (1 Jn 4:4). Often, our bold proclamation of the power of Christ who dwells in us by the Holy Spirit is a convincing answer to Muslims’ fear. I have often told my folk Muslim friends that I do not need their amulets and practices because of the power of Jesus that lives inside of me. This declaration often provokes significant spiritual conversation about topics that are meaningful to folk Muslims.
Part of First Thessalonians in Devdu. Devdu is Urdu written in the Hindi script and is a common variant of Urdu in North India.
“You yourselves became imitators of us and of the Lord when, in spite of severe persecution, you welcomed the message with joy from the Holy Spirit.” 1 Thessalonians 1:6
It is my conviction – and that of many missionaries – that missionaries should emulate the apostle Paul in their missionary work.
Paul intended for Timothy to emulate his missionary model, even after his death (2 Tim 3:10-4:8). Paul likewise intended for Timothy to teach others to imitate Paul’s model (2 Tim 2:2). Therefore, Second Timothy teaches us that Paul’s missionary model persists as a model for modern missionaries.
A primary difference between Second Timothy and First Thessalonians is that Second Timothy provides a model for cross-cultural missionaries, like Timothy, to imitate Paul. In contrast, First Thessalonians was written to a local church. Therefore, First Thessalonians focuses on believers in a local church following Paul’s model.
In this blog post, I want to extend the same argument to First Thessalonians. In 1 Thessalonians 1:6, Paul praised the believers at Thessalonians, saying, “you yourselves became imitators of us and of the Lord when, in spite of great persecution, you welcomed the message with joy from the Holy Spirit.”
The first thing that we see is that there is not a great conflict between imitating Paul and imitating Jesus. The Thessalonians imitated both Jesus and Paul! Elsewhere, Paul wrote, “imitate me as I imitate Christ” (1 Cor 11:1). Some have asked me, “Why focus on emulating Paul instead of Jesus?”
The primary reason we should focus on Paul instead of Jesus is that Jesus was the unique Son of God. As the unique Son of God, there are aspects of His life and mission that we cannot and should not emulate. For example, we should not emulate His sacrificial death for our sins, which was the central act of our salvation. Instead, we stand as witnesses of His unique person and work. In this way, we are more like Paul than Jesus. Paul’s life shows us what aspects of Jesus’ life we should and should not emulate. Thus Paul said, “imitate me as I imitate Christ.” We honor Christ’s unique person and work when we make this distinction.
Returning to First Thessalonians, we see at least four ways Paul expected the Thessalonians to follow his model.
1. Paul praised the Thessalonians for standing firm during persecution, as Paul did.
“You yourselves became imitators of us and of the Lord when, in spite of severe persecution, you welcomed the message with joy from the Holy Spirit.” 1 Thessalonians 1:6
When the church at Thessalonica began, persecution broke out against the church. The church leaders were put on trial for their faith, and the local church had to pay a large sum of money as bail (Acts 17:1-9). Despite these difficulties, the Thessalonians followed the Lord diligently.
Paul reminded them of how he had “previously suffered and been mistreated at Philippi” (1 Thess 2:2). In Philippi, Paul and Silas were beaten and imprisoned overnight. Despite that persecution, they came to Thessalonica and preached the gospel boldly. Paul was pleased that the Thessalonians likewise stood firmly in Christ despite persecution.
Jesus provided a model for Paul to stand amid persecution. For the joy before Him, our Lord Jesus endured the cross, despised the shame, and sat down at the right hand of the Father (Heb 12:2).
In the same way, following Paul’s model means that we must stand amid persecution. When we stand in persecution, we are not alone.
2. Paul praised the Thessalonians for proclaiming the gospel, as Paul did.
“For the Word of the Lord rang out from you, not only in Macedonia and Achaia but in every place that your faith in God has gone out.” 1 Thessalonians 1:8
Gary Shogren wrote, “ The Thessalonians have come full circle and have become ‘evangelized evangelists.’” (Shogren, 1-2 Thessalonians, page 71). The result of the Thessalonians proclaiming the gospel amid persecution was that the word of God spread quickly across a large geographic area. Specifically, it was reported that the Thessalonians had “turned to God from idols to serve the living and true God and to wait for His Son from heaven” (1 Thess 1:9).
Imitating Paul means imitating his example in boldly proclaiming the gospel. Paul did not expect every believer at Thessalonica to become a missionary, but he hoped that they would share Christ with their friends, families, and neighbors. Today, some will become like Timothy and imitate Paul by becoming cross-cultural church planters. Others will imitate Paul by working hard in their jobs and proclaiming Christ in every opportunity. The first model is present in Second Timothy. The second model is evident in First Thessalonians.
3. Paul encouraged the Thessalonians to follow his work ethic.
”Seek to lead a quiet life, to mind your own business, and to work with your own hands, as we commanded you, so that we may behave properly in the presence of outsiders and not be dependent on anyone” 1 Thessalonians 4:11-12
Paul commanded the Thessalonians to work hard with their own hands. Regarding his own example, Paul wrote, “you yourselves remember our labor and hardship, brothers and sisters. Working night and day so that we would not burden any of you, we preached God’s gospel to you” (1 Thess 2:9). The book of Acts reports Paul making tents shortly after his time in Thessalonica (Acts 18:3). By extension, it seems likely that Paul was involved with the same work in Thessalonica.
Please note that Paul worked hard to provide for his needs while proclaiming the gospel. However, when sufficient funds were available, he left tentmaking to focus on preaching the Word (see Acts 18:5).
Following Paul’s model means to live a life of diligence and hard work. Working hard with your hands is legitimate, as Paul demonstrated. Paul’s model leaves space for individuals in full-time ministry, bi-vocational ministry, or those engaged in full-time work. All three should work hard, as Paul did. And all three should be diligent in proclaiming the gospel, as Paul did.
4. Paul encouraged the Thessalonians to imitate his spiritual life.
”Rejoice always, pray without ceasing, give thanks in everything, for this is God’s will for you in Christ Jesus.” 1 Thessalonians 5:16-18
Many have agonized over a way to obey the command, “pray without ceasing.” Often unnoticed is that Paul used this same adverb to describe his own prayer life in First Thessalonians. First, he referenced “making mention of you without ceasing in our prayers” (1 Thess 1:2). Then he wrote that “we thank God without ceasing” (1 Thess 2:13). In light of this, we can paraphrase the command “praying without ceasing” as Paul saying, “pray as much as I do.”
Ministers of the gospel should be able to tell their disciples, “pray as much as I do.” Many are uncomfortable with this statement because they see their weaknesses in their prayer lives. Brothers and sisters, this is the most critical part of imitating Paul. We must love God with great zeal. We must pray constantly. We must abide in Jesus. We must keep in step with the Spirit. Paul provided a powerful model in his spiritual life for the Thessalonians until he could say, “pray as much as I do.”
Likewise, we should each go and pray as much as we desire our disciples to pray.
Therefore, every follower of Jesus should imitate Paul by standing firm during persecution, proclaiming the gospel, working hard, and praying without ceasing. Some will be called out as cross-cultural missionaries. But when the average believer lives in the way that Paul expected n First Thessalonians, the kingdom advances through them. Living in South Asia, I have the joy of serving alongside South Asian brothers and sisters in Christ who live out these characteristics. No doubt that is part of the reason that the gospel is advancing so quickly in this region of the world.
No Cousins Left 
